{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T04:36:15Z","timestamp":1791952575030,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":144,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]],"date-time":"2024-10-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727827200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The triad formed by thyroid dysfunction, metabolic syndrome (MetS), and cardiovascular (CV) risk forms a network with many connections that aggravates health outcomes. Thyroid hormones (THs) play an important role in glucose and lipid metabolism and hemodynamic regulation at the molecular level. It is noteworthy that a bidirectional association between THs and MetS and their components likely exists as MetS leads to thyroid dysfunction, whereas thyroid alterations may cause a higher incidence of MetS. Thyroid dysfunction increases insulin resistance, the circulating levels of lipids, in particular LDL-C, VLDL-C, and triglycerides, and induces endothelial dysfunction. Furthermore, THs are important regulators of both white and brown adipose tissue. Moreover, the pathophysiological relationship between MetS and TH dysfunction is made even tighter considering that these conditions are usually associated with inflammatory activation and increased oxidative stress. Therefore, the role of THs takes place starting from the molecular level, then manifesting itself at the clinical level, through an increased risk of CV events in the general population as well as in patients with heart failure or acute myocardial infarction. Thus, MetS is frequently associated with thyroid dysfunction, which supports the need to assess thyroid function in this group, and when clinically indicated, to correct it to maintain euthyroidism. However, there are still several critical points to be further investigated both at the molecular and clinical level, in particular considering the need to treat subclinical dysthyroidism in MetS patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms251910628","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]],"date-time":"2024-10-02T06:27:31Z","timestamp":1727850451000},"page":"10628","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Metabolic Syndrome, Thyroid Dysfunction, and Cardiovascular Risk: The Triptych of Evil"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4049-184X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Pingitore","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Physiology Institute, CNR, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6311-502X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melania","family":"Gaggini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Physiology Institute, CNR, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9415-3715","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Mastorci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Physiology Institute, CNR, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9283-5042","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Sabatino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Physiology Institute, CNR, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Linda","family":"Cordiviola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy, Pisa University, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3438-6450","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Vassalle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione G. Monasterio, Regione Toscana, 56124 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)67402-8","article-title":"The metabolic syndrome\u2014A new worldwide definition","volume":"366","author":"Alberti","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9136(199807)15:7<539::AID-DIA668>3.0.CO;2-S","article-title":"Definition, diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus and its complications. Part 1: Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus provisional report of a WHO consultation","volume":"15","author":"Alberti","year":"1998","journal-title":"Diabet. Med. A J. Br. Diabet. 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