{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T19:49:39Z","timestamp":1790884179783,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,10]],"date-time":"2024-10-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728518400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Graduate Research Grant, Mae Fah Luang University","award":["10\/66"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10\/66"]}]},{"name":"Graduate Research Grant, Mae Fah Luang University","award":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000868"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000868"]}]},{"name":"Graduate Research Grant, Mae Fah Luang University","award":["23-05474S"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23-05474S"]}]},{"name":"Graduate Research Grant, Mae Fah Luang University","award":["2025PVA0074"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025PVA0074"]}]},{"name":"Office of the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, Thailand","award":["10\/66"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10\/66"]}]},{"name":"Office of the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, Thailand","award":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000868"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000868"]}]},{"name":"Office of the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, Thailand","award":["23-05474S"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23-05474S"]}]},{"name":"Office of the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation, Thailand","award":["2025PVA0074"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025PVA0074"]}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Fund","award":["10\/66"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10\/66"]}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Fund","award":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000868"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000868"]}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Fund","award":["23-05474S"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23-05474S"]}]},{"name":"European Regional Development Fund","award":["2025PVA0074"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025PVA0074"]}]},{"name":"Czech Agency Grants","award":["10\/66"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10\/66"]}]},{"name":"Czech Agency Grants","award":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000868"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000868"]}]},{"name":"Czech Agency Grants","award":["23-05474S"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23-05474S"]}]},{"name":"Czech Agency Grants","award":["2025PVA0074"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025PVA0074"]}]},{"name":"The Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["10\/66"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10\/66"]}]},{"name":"The Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000868"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000868"]}]},{"name":"The Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["23-05474S"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23-05474S"]}]},{"name":"The Chinese Academy of Sciences","award":["2025PVA0074"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2025PVA0074"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Galangal (Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd) and bitter ginger (Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe) are aromatic rhizomatous plants that are typically used for culinary purposes. These rhizomatous plants have many biological properties and the potential to be beneficial for pharmaceutics. In this study, we evaluated the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, with a specific focus on acne-causing bacteria, as well as the phytochemical constituents, of different parts of galangal and bitter ginger. The rhizomes, stems, and leaves of galangal and bitter ginger were separately dried for absolute ethanol and methanol extractions. The extracts were used to evaluate the antioxidant activity using a DPPH radical scavenging assay (0.005\u20135000 \u03bcg\/mL), antimicrobial activity against acne-causing bacteria (0.50\u201331.68 mg\/mL), and in vitro cytotoxicity toward human keratinocytes and fibroblasts (62.5\u20131000 \u03bcg\/mL), as well as analyses of bioactive phytochemicals via GC-MS and LC-MS\/MS (500 ppm). The ethanol and methanol extracts of bitter ginger and galangal\u2019s rhizomes (BRhE, BRhM, GRhE, and GRhM), stems (BStE, BStM, GRhE, and GRhM), and leaves (BLeE, BLeM, GLeE, and GLeM), respectively, showed antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. The extracts of all parts of bitter ginger and galangal were greatly antioxidative with 0.06\u20131.42 mg\/mL for the IC50 values, while most of the extracts were strongly antimicrobial against C. acnes DMST 14916, particularly BRhM, BRhE, GRhM, and GRhE (MICs: 3.96\u20137.92 mg\/mL). These rhizome extracts had also antimicrobial activities against S. aureus TISTR 746 (MICs: 7.92\u201331.68 mg\/mL) and S. epidermidis TISTR 518 (MICs: 7.92\u201315.84 mg\/mL). The extracts of bitter ginger and galangal rhizomes were not toxic to HaCaT and MRC-5 even at the highest concentrations. Through GC-MS and LC-MS\/MS analysis, phytochemicals in bitter ginger rhizome extracts, including zerumbone, tectorigenin, piperic acid, demethoxycurcumin, and cirsimaritin, and galangal rhizome extracts, including sweroside and neobavaisoflavone, were expected to provide the antioxidant and anti-microbial activities. Therefore, the results suggest that the bitter ginger and galangal extracts could be natural anti-acne compounds with potential for pharmaceutic, cosmetic, and aesthetic applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252010869","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,10]],"date-time":"2024-10-10T07:54:09Z","timestamp":1728546849000},"page":"10869","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["In Vitro Cytotoxicity and Antimicrobial Activity against Acne-Causing Bacteria and Phytochemical Analysis of Galangal (Alpinia galanga) and Bitter Ginger (Zingiber zerumbet) Extracts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7753-3921","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tanat","family":"Na Nongkhai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand"},{"name":"Green Cosmetic Technology Research Group, School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2452-3757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarah E.","family":"Maddocks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Microbiology and Infection Research Group, Cardiff School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Llandaff, Cardiff CF5 2YB, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Santi","family":"Phosri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1154-6397","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarita","family":"Sangthong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand"},{"name":"Green Cosmetic Technology Research Group, School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4044-4776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Punyawatt","family":"Pintathong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand"},{"name":"Green Cosmetic Technology Research Group, School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7246-5710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Phanuphong","family":"Chaiwut","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand"},{"name":"Green Cosmetic Technology Research Group, School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kasemsiri","family":"Chandarajoti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand"},{"name":"Drug Delivery System Excellence Center, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat-Yai, Songkhla 90112, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lutfun","family":"Nahar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Palack\u00fd University and Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of Sciences, \u0160lechtitel\u016f 27, 78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4038-0514","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Satyajit D.","family":"Sarker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Natural Products Discovery, School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tinnakorn","family":"Theansungnoen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Baron, S. 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