{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T00:24:24Z","timestamp":1792110264218,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":169,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,4]],"date-time":"2024-11-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730678400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010301","name":"Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["JP 01\/24"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP 01\/24"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010301","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010301","name":"Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["451-03-65\/2024-03\/200111"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["451-03-65\/2024-03\/200111"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010301","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science, Technical Development, and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia","award":["JP 01\/24"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JP 01\/24"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science, Technical Development, and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia","award":["451-03-65\/2024-03\/200111"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["451-03-65\/2024-03\/200111"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Retinal vascular diseases encompass several retinal disorders, including diabetic retinopathy, retinopathy of prematurity, age-related macular degeneration, and retinal vascular occlusion; these disorders are classified as similar groups of disorders due to impaired retinal vascularization. The aim of this review is to address the main signaling pathways involved in the pathogenesis of retinal vascular diseases and to identify crucial molecules and the importance of their interactions. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is recognized as a crucial and central molecule in abnormal neovascularization and a key phenomenon in retinal vascular occlusion; thus, anti-VEGF therapy is now the most successful form of treatment for these disorders. Interaction between angiopoietin 2 and the Tie2 receptor results in aberrant Tie2 signaling, resulting in loss of pericytes, neovascularization, and inflammation. Notch signaling and hypoxia-inducible factors in ischemic conditions induce pathological neovascularization and disruption of the blood\u2013retina barrier. An increase in the pro-inflammatory cytokines\u2014TNF-\u03b1, IL-1\u03b2, and IL-6\u2014and activation of microglia create a persistent inflammatory milieu that promotes breakage of the blood\u2013retinal barrier and neovascularization. Toll-like receptor signaling and nuclear factor-kappa B are important factors in the dysregulation of the immune response in retinal vascular diseases. Increased production of reactive oxygen species and oxidative damage follow inflammation and together create a vicious cycle because each factor amplifies the other. Understanding the complex interplay among various signaling pathways, signaling cascades, and molecules enables the development of new and more successful therapeutic options.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252111850","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,4]],"date-time":"2024-11-04T09:52:54Z","timestamp":1730713974000},"page":"11850","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":74,"title":["Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms Involved in the Pathophysiology of Retinal Vascular Disease\u2014Interplay Between Inflammation and Oxidative Stress"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Jovana V.","family":"Srejovic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University Clinical Center \u201cKragujevac\u201d, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maja D.","family":"Muric","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0071-8376","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vladimir Lj.","family":"Jakovljevic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Center of Excellence for the Study of Redox Balance in Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorders, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Department of Human Pathology, First Moscow State Medical University I.M. Sechenov, Moscow 119435, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3835-1856","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan M.","family":"Srejovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Center of Excellence for the Study of Redox Balance in Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorders, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, First Moscow State Medical University I.M. Sechenov, Moscow 119435, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2424-8444","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suncica B.","family":"Sreckovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Clinical Center \u201cKragujevac\u201d, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nenad T.","family":"Petrovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Clinical Center \u201cKragujevac\u201d, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dusan Z.","family":"Todorovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Clinical Center \u201cKragujevac\u201d, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergey B.","family":"Bolevich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Pathology, First Moscow State Medical University I.M. Sechenov, Moscow 119435, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tatjana S.","family":"Sarenac Vulovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University Clinical Center \u201cKragujevac\u201d, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ji, Y., Ji, Y., Liu, Y., Zhao, Y., and Zhang, L. (2023). Research progress on diagnosing retinal vascular diseases based on artificial intelligence and fundus images. Front. Cell Dev. 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