{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T03:35:22Z","timestamp":1788838522653,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,15]],"date-time":"2024-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1731628800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a complex psychiatric disorder characterized by an unstable sense of self and identity, emotional dysregulation, impulsivity, and disturbed interpersonal relationships. This narrative review examines the interplay between dysregulation of the autonomic nervous system, metabolic changes, and cardiovascular risk in BPD. Altered heart rate variability (HRV), reflecting the dysregulation of the autonomic nervous system, is associated with some BPD core symptoms, such as emotional instability and impulsivity. Dysregulation of the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal (HPA) axis, often stemming from early trauma, contributes to chronic inflammation and elevated allostatic load, which further increases cardiovascular risk. Metabolic dysfunctions in BPD, such as elevated body mass index (BMI), high blood pressure, and inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein (CRP), exacerbate these risks. Speckle-tracking echocardiography, particularly global longitudinal strain (GLS) and biomarkers such as homocysteine and epicardial fat, could be considered early predictors of cardiovascular events in individuals with BPD. Chronic stress, inflammation, and maladaptive stress responses further heighten cardiovascular vulnerability, potentially accelerating biological aging and cognitive decline. A literature search covering the period from 2014 to 2024 on PubMed identified 189 studies on this topic, of which 37 articles were deemed eligible for this review. These included cross-sectional, longitudinal, case\u2013control, randomised controlled trials (RCTs), reviews, and meta-analysis designs, with sample sizes ranging from 14 to 5969 participants. The main limitations were that only one database was searched, the time of publications was limited, non-English manuscripts were excluded, and the quality of each paper was not commented on. This narrative review aims to provide an overview of recent evidence obtained on this topic, pointing out a direction for future research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252212286","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]],"date-time":"2024-11-18T04:07:09Z","timestamp":1731902829000},"page":"12286","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Metabolic Dysfunctions, Dysregulation of the Autonomic Nervous System, and Echocardiographic Parameters in Borderline Personality Disorder: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5182-3467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Bozzatello","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, Via Cherasco 15, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giacomo","family":"Marin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, Via Cherasco 15, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giulio","family":"Gabriele","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, Via Cherasco 15, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9363-2506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudio","family":"Brasso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, Via Cherasco 15, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6414-3559","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Rocca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, Via Cherasco 15, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6555-8000","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvio","family":"Bellino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, University of Turin, Via Cherasco 15, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1521\/pedi.2016.30.3.289","article-title":"What Is a Personality Disorder?","volume":"30","author":"Millon","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. 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