{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T16:11:38Z","timestamp":1791216698743,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":330,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,26]],"date-time":"2024-12-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735171200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Immunotherapy, particularly that based on blocking checkpoint proteins in many tumors, including melanoma, Merkel cell carcinoma, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), triple-negative breast (TNB cancer), renal cancer, and gastrointestinal and endometrial neoplasms, is a therapeutic alternative to chemotherapy. Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-based therapies have the potential to target different pathways leading to the destruction of cancer cells. Although ICIs are an effective treatment strategy for patients with highly immune-infiltrated cancers, the development of different adverse effects including cutaneous adverse effects during and after the treatment with ICIs is common. ICI-associated cutaneous adverse effects include mostly inflammatory and bullous dermatoses, as well as severe cutaneous side reactions such as rash or inflammatory dermatitis encompassing erythema multiforme; lichenoid, eczematous, psoriasiform, and morbilliform lesions; and palmoplantar erythrodysesthesia. The development of immunotherapy-related adverse effects is a consequence of ICIs\u2019 unique molecular action that is mainly mediated by the activation of cytotoxic CD4+\/CD8+ T cells. ICI-associated cutaneous disorders are the most prevalent effects induced in response to anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD-1), anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4), and anti-programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) agents. Herein, we will elucidate the mechanisms regulating the occurrence of cutaneous adverse effects following treatment with ICIs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26010088","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,26]],"date-time":"2024-12-26T03:10:49Z","timestamp":1735182649000},"page":"88","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-Associated Cutaneous Adverse Events: Mechanisms of Occurrence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Abdulaziz M.","family":"Eshaq","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology and Biostatstics, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University Washington, Washington, DC 20052, USA"},{"name":"Research Laboratory of Surgery-Oncology, Department of Surgery, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas W.","family":"Flanagan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, LSU Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdulqader A.","family":"Ba Abbad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zain Alabden A.","family":"Makarem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mohammed S.","family":"Bokir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed K.","family":"Alasheq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara A.","family":"Al Asheikh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdullah M.","family":"Almashhor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Faroq","family":"Binyamani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Waleed A.","family":"Al-Amoudi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdulaziz S.","family":"Bawzir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiology, King Saud Medical City, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Youssef","family":"Haikel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institut National de la Sant\u00e9 et de la Recherche M\u00e9dicale, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"},{"name":"Department of Operative Dentistry and Endodontics, Dental Faculty, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"},{"name":"P\u00f4le de M\u00e9decine et Chirurgie Bucco-Dentaire, H\u00f4pital Civil, H\u00f4pitaux Universitaire de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mossad","family":"Megahed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic of Dermatology, University Hospital of Aachen, 52074 Aachen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0336-6425","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Hassan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Laboratory of Surgery-Oncology, Department of Surgery, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA"},{"name":"Institut National de la Sant\u00e9 et de la Recherche M\u00e9dicale, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"},{"name":"Department of Operative Dentistry and Endodontics, Dental Faculty, University of Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e006401","DOI":"10.1136\/jitc-2022-006401","article-title":"Barriers to immune cell infiltration in tumors","volume":"11","author":"Melssen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. 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