{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T12:54:59Z","timestamp":1793105699307,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,4]],"date-time":"2025-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735948800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The interplay between the cytokine network and antipsychotic treatment in schizophrenia remains poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the impact of psychotropic medications on serum levels of IFN-\u03b3, IL-4, TGF-\u03b21, IL-17, and BAFF, and to explore their relationship with psychopathological features. We recruited 63 patients diagnosed with schizophrenia in the acute phase, all of whom were either drug-na\u00efve or had been drug-free for at least three months. Serum levels of IL-4, IFN-\u03b3, TGF-\u03b21, IL-17, and BAFF were measured at baseline and after six months of antipsychotic treatment. The severity of symptoms was assessed using the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS), and the Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS). Fifty-two patients completed the six-month follow-up for immunoassay analysis. Antipsychotic treatment led to a significant decrease in serum levels of IFN-\u03b3, TGF-\u03b21, and IL-17, alongside a significant increase in BAFF levels. Changes in IFN-\u03b3 were positively correlated with SANS scores and negatively correlated with Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scores. Changes in TGF-\u03b21 were negatively correlated with GAF scores. Changes in BAFF were negatively correlated with SAPS scores. Multivariable regression models were used to explore the association between cytokine level changes (IL-17, BAFF, IFN-\u03b3, and TGF-\u03b21) and independent variables, including demographic (gender, age), behavioral (tobacco use), clinical (schizophrenia type, disease course, date of onset, prior treatment), and biological (C-reactive protein (CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)) factors, as well as standardized assessment scores. No significant associations were found, except for a significant negative correlation between TGF-\u03b21 changes and GAF scores, as well as a positive correlation with age. Interestingly, advanced statistical analyses revealed that only changes in IL-17 and BAFF levels were significantly associated with antipsychotic treatment. Our findings suggest that antipsychotic drugs exert both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects on the cytokine network. The observed modulation of IL-17 and BAFF highlights their potential as future therapeutic targets in schizophrenia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26010385","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,6]],"date-time":"2025-01-06T08:08:52Z","timestamp":1736150932000},"page":"385","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Comparative Analysis of Serum BAFF and IL-17 Levels Pre- and Post-Antipsychotic Treatment for Acute Schizophrenia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0652-6484","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samar","family":"Samoud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Immunology, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, University of Sousse, Sousse 4002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Transmission, Control and Immunobiology of Infections (LR16IPT02), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahlem","family":"Mtiraoui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, University of Sousse, Sousse 4002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Farhat Hached University Hospital, Sousse 4000, Tunisia"},{"name":"Research Laboratory LR12ES04, Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, University of Sousse, Sousse 4002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0438-6807","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Imen","family":"Zamali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Immunology, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Transmission, Control and Immunobiology of Infections (LR16IPT02), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1068, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yousr","family":"Galai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Immunology, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Monastir, Monastir 5000, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Naila","family":"Hannachi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, University of Sousse, Sousse 4002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wiem","family":"Manoubi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, 3000 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Research Laboratory of Human Cytogenetics, Molecular Genetics and Reproductive Biology LR03SP02, Farhat Hached University Hospital, Sousse 4000, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jaafar","family":"Nakhli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, University of Sousse, Sousse 4002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Farhat Hached University Hospital, Sousse 4000, Tunisia"},{"name":"Research Laboratory LR12ES04, Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, University of Sousse, Sousse 4002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hechmi","family":"Louzir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Transmission, Control and Immunobiology of Infections (LR16IPT02), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis 1068, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yousri El","family":"Kissi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Laboratory LR12ES04, Faculty of Medicine of Sousse, University of Sousse, Sousse 4002, Tunisia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reale, M., Patruno, A., De Lutiis, M.A., Pesce, M., Felaco, M., Di Giannantonio, M., Di Nicola, M., and Grilli, A. (2011). Dysregulation of chemo-cytokine production in schizophrenic patients versus healthy controls. BMC Neurosci., 12.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2202-12-13"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"180","article-title":"Immunological Characteristics of Schizophrenia","volume":"30","author":"Rubesa","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Danub."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1075","DOI":"10.1038\/tp.2017.4","article-title":"Immune involvement in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia: A meta-analysis on postmortem brain studies","volume":"7","author":"Gremmels","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1819.2010.02094.x","article-title":"Cytokine hypothesis of schizophrenia pathogenesis: Evidence from human studies and animal models","volume":"64","author":"Watanabe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reale, M., Costantini, E., and Greig, N.H. (2021). Cytokine imbalance in schizophrenia. From research to clinic: Potential implications for treatment. Front. Psychiatry, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.536257"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-015-9626-9","article-title":"Adaptive Immunity in Schizophrenia: Functional Implications of T Cells in the Etiology, Course and Treatment","volume":"10","author":"Debnath","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.3233\/HAB-180344","article-title":"Serum cytokine profile in schizophrenic patients","volume":"27","author":"Eftekharian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum. Antibodies"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2011.04.013","article-title":"Meta-analysis of cytokine alterations in schizophrenia: Clinical status and antipsychotic effects","volume":"70","author":"Miller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2019.00892","article-title":"Cytokine alterations in schizophrenia: An updated review","volume":"10","author":"Momtazmanesh","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2007.09.024","article-title":"Inflammatory cytokine alterations in schizophrenia: A systemic quantitative review","volume":"63","author":"Potvin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1069","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2009.52","article-title":"Activation of brain interleukin-1beta in schizophrenia","volume":"14","author":"Soderlund","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2019.146463","article-title":"Association of peripheral cytokine levels with cerebral structural abnormalities in schizophrenia","volume":"1724","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-022-06067-y","article-title":"Pro-inflammatory cytokine levels are elevated in female patients with schizophrenia treated with clozapine","volume":"239","author":"Yuan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2012.10.022","article-title":"The role of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the neuroinflammation and neurogenesis of schizophrenia","volume":"48","author":"Na","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saetre, P., Emilsson, L., Axelsson, E., Kreuger, J., Lindholm, E., and Jazin, E. (2007). Inflammation-related genes up-regulated in schizophrenia brains. BMC Psychiatry, 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-244X-7-46"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2006.07.006","article-title":"Schizophrenia, autoimmunity and immune system dysregulation: A comprehensive model updated and revised","volume":"27","author":"Strous","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2012.08.016","article-title":"Elevated serum level of type-2 cytokine and low IL-17 in first episode psychosis and schizophrenia in relapse","volume":"46","author":"Borovcanin","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8170","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-016-0309-1","article-title":"Functional Implications of the IL-23\/IL-17 Immune Axis in Schizophrenia","volume":"54","author":"Debnath","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2013.10.019","article-title":"Differential correlations between inflammatory cytokines and psychopathology in veterans with schizophrenia: Potential role for IL-17 pathway","volume":"151","author":"Dimitrov","year":"2013","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1017\/S1461145710001653","article-title":"An activated set point of T-cell and monocyte inflammatory networks in recent-onset schizophrenia patients involves both pro- and anti-inflammatory forces","volume":"14","author":"Drexhage","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2014.10.007","article-title":"Increased Interleukin-17 and decreased BAFF serum levels in drug-free acute schizophrenia","volume":"225","author":"Samoud","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2017.07.023","article-title":"The role of Th17 cells in auto-inflammatory neurological disorders","volume":"79","author":"Tahmasebinia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2665","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0802221","article-title":"IL-17 signaling-independent central nervous system autoimmunity is negatively regulated by TGF-beta","volume":"182","author":"Zhao","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2015.0220","article-title":"Serum IL-4 and IL-10 Levels Correlate with the Symptoms of the Drug-Naive Adolescents with First Episode, Early Onset Schizophrenia","volume":"26","author":"Kaya","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1038\/441166a","article-title":"Immunology: What does it mean to be just 17?","volume":"441","author":"Tato","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jagp.2016.10.012","article-title":"Inflammation in Schizophrenia: What It Means and How to Treat It","volume":"25","author":"Harvey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-9964(98)00034-6","article-title":"The inflammatory response system in treatment-resistant schizophrenia: Increased serum interleukin-6","volume":"32","author":"Lin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3956(94)00049-W","article-title":"Interleukin-2 and interleukin-6 in schizophrenia and mania: Effects of neuroleptics and mood stablizers","volume":"29","author":"Maes","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2017.19.1\/nmueller","article-title":"Immunological aspects of the treatment of depression and schizophrenia","volume":"19","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dialogues Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2016.12.003","article-title":"Clozapine-induced agranulocytosis: Evidence for an immune-mediated mechanism from a patient-specific in-vitro approach","volume":"316","author":"Regen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-9964(99)00116-4","article-title":"Immunosuppressive effects of clozapine and haloperidol: Enhanced production of the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist","volume":"42","author":"Song","year":"2000","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.17116\/jnevro20161167155-58","article-title":"An effect of quetiapine on the immune system of patients with schizophrenia","volume":"116","author":"Vetlugina","year":"2016","journal-title":"Zhurnal Nevrol. Psihiatr. Im. SS Korsakova"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-9964(01)00296-1","article-title":"Elevated interleukin-2, interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 serum levels in neuroleptic-free schizophrenia: Association with psychopathology","volume":"57","author":"Zhang","year":"2002","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.9758\/cpn.2013.11.3.144","article-title":"Effects of antipsychotics on the inflammatory response system of patients with schizophrenia in peripheral blood mononuclear cell cultures","volume":"11","author":"Uddin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Psychopharmacol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nucifora, F.C., Woznica, E., Lee, B.J., Cascella, N., and Sawa, A. (2019). Treatment resistant schizophrenia: Clinical, biological, and therapeutic perspectives. Neurobiol. Dis., 131.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2018.08.016"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41537-019-0090-z","article-title":"The neurobiology of treatment-resistant schizophrenia: Paths to antipsychotic resistance and a roadmap for future research","volume":"6","author":"Potkin","year":"2020","journal-title":"NPJ Schizophr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2014.03.020","article-title":"Pro-inflammatory cytokine levels are raised in female schizophrenia patients treated with clozapine","volume":"156","author":"Thakore","year":"2014","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2013.10.011","article-title":"Antipsychotics\u2019 effects on blood levels of cytokines in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis","volume":"151","author":"Tourjman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2013.03.027","article-title":"Antipsychotics can modulate the cytokine profile in schizophrenia: Attenuation of the type-2 inflammatory response","volume":"147","author":"Borovcanin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2016.10.061","article-title":"Plasma levels of Th17-related cytokines and complement C3 correlated with aggressive behavior in patients with schizophrenia","volume":"246","author":"Mao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad0314","article-title":"The maternal ROR \u03b3 t \/ IL-17a pathway promotes autism-like phenotypes in offspring","volume":"351","author":"Choi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2014.01.001","article-title":"Activation of Th17 cells in drug na\u00efve, first episode schizophrenia","volume":"51","author":"Ding","year":"2014","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2018.03.022","article-title":"A pilot study on immuno-psychiatry in the 22q11. 2 deletion syndrome: A role for Th17 cells in psychosis?","volume":"70","author":"Vergaelen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2016.06.031","article-title":"Peripheral immuno-inflammatory abnormalities in ultra-high risk of developing psychosis","volume":"176","author":"Rizzo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R97","DOI":"10.1186\/ar2484","article-title":"Raised intrathecal levels of APRIL and BAFF in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: Relationship to neuropsychiatric symptoms","volume":"10","author":"Trysberg","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arthritis. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2008.06.006","article-title":"BAFF is up-regulated in central nervous system of neuro-Beh\u00e7et\u2019s disease","volume":"200","author":"Hamzaoui","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20041674","article-title":"BAFF is produced by astrocytes and up-regulated in multiple sclerosis lesions and primary central nervous system lymphoma","volume":"201","author":"Krumbholz","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3083.2012.02694.x","article-title":"Elevated BAFF Levels in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Patients with Neuro-Behcet\u2019s Disease: BAFF is Correlated with Progressive Dementia and Psychosis","volume":"75","author":"Sumita","year":"2012","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14993","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0806044105","article-title":"Local BAFF gene silencing suppresses Th17-cell generation and ameliorates autoimmune arthritis","volume":"105","author":"Lam","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7112","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.11.7112","article-title":"Cutting edge: Foxp3+CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells induced by IL-2 and TGF-beta are resistant to Th17 conversion by IL 6","volume":"180","author":"Zheng","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2675","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1000598","article-title":"Cutting edge: All-trans retinoic acid sustains the stability and function of natural regulatory T cells in an inflammatory milieu","volume":"185","author":"Zhou","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2005.10.004","article-title":"Antipsychotic treatment may alter T-helper (TH) 2 arm cytokines","volume":"6","author":"Pae","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"268","article-title":"Increased Th1 and Th2 immune reactivity with relative Th2 dominance in patients with acute exacerbation of schizophrenia","volume":"46","author":"Avgustin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Croat. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2007.11.014","article-title":"Increased tumor necrosis factor-alpha concentrations with interleukin-4 concentrations in exacerbations of schizophrenia","volume":"160","author":"Scully","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1159\/000213565","article-title":"Cytokine changes and tryptophan metabolites in medication-na\u00efve and medication-free schizophrenic patients","volume":"59","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychobiology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1696","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2016.3","article-title":"A meta-analysis of blood cytokine network alterations in psychiatric patients: Comparisons between schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and depression","volume":"21","author":"Rapaport","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2004.05.047","article-title":"Th1, Th2 and Th3 cytokine alteration in schizophrenia","volume":"28","author":"Kim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4000650","article-title":"Decreased in vitro production of interferon-gamma and interleukin-2 in whole blood of patients with schizophrenia during treatment","volume":"5","author":"Arolt","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2011.04.009","article-title":"Impact of antipsychotics on cytokine production in-vitro","volume":"45","author":"Himmerich","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andreasen, N. (1983). Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS), University of Iowa.","DOI":"10.1037\/t12696-000"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ermakov, E.A., Melamud, M.M., Boiko, A.S., Kamaeva, D.A., Ivanova, S.A., Nevinsky, G.A., and Buneva, V.N. (2023). Association of Peripheral Inflammatory Biomarkers and Growth Factors Levels with Sex, Therapy and Other Clinical Factors in Schizophrenia and Patient Stratification Based on These Data. Brain Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13050836"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/sbab106","article-title":"Plasma Levels of the Cytokines B Cell-Activating Factor (BAFF) and A Proliferation-Inducing Ligand (APRIL) in Schizophrenia, Bipolar, and Major Depressive Disorder: A Cross Sectional, Multisite Study","volume":"48","author":"Engh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Schizophr. Bull."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2007.09.015","article-title":"Act1 modulates autoimmunity through its dual functions in CD40L\/BAFF and IL-17 signaling","volume":"41","author":"Li","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1111\/1756-185X.12569","article-title":"Association of BAFF and IL-17A with subphenotypes of primary Sjogren\u2019s syndrome","volume":"19","author":"Deng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2024.07.025","article-title":"B Cell-activating factor (BAFF): A promising trans-nosographic biomarker of inflammation and autoimmunity in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia","volume":"121","author":"Boukouaci","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2014.02.005","article-title":"Cytokine alterations in first-episode schizophrenia patients before and after antipsychotic treatment","volume":"154","author":"Tomasik","year":"2014","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2012.12.023","article-title":"Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist and soluble tumor-necrosis-factor-receptor-1 are associated with general severity and psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder","volume":"145","author":"Hope","year":"2013","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-9964(99)00171-1","article-title":"Relationships between interleukins, neurotransmitters and psychopathology in drug-free male schizophrenics","volume":"44","author":"Kim","year":"2000","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2012.04.026","article-title":"Elevated interleukin-18 serum levels in chronic schizophrenia: Association with psychopathology","volume":"46","author":"Xiu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2011.11.003","article-title":"Developmental neuroinflammation and schizophrenia","volume":"42","author":"Meyer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.2466\/pr0.1962.10.3.799","article-title":"The Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale","volume":"10","author":"Overall","year":"1962","journal-title":"Psychol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/S0920-9964(01)00277-8","article-title":"PANSS factors and scores in schizophrenic and bipolar disorders during an index acute episode: A further analysis of the cognitive component","volume":"56","author":"Daneluzzo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Andreasen, N. (1984). Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS), University of Iowa."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/S0033-3182(95)71666-8","article-title":"Global assessment of functioning: A modified scale","volume":"36","author":"Hall","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychosomatics"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1990.tb16099.x","article-title":"Latent forms of TGF-beta: Structure and biology","volume":"593","author":"Miyazono","year":"1990","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/1\/385\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:22:57Z","timestamp":1759918977000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/1\/385"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,4]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26010385"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26010385","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,4]]}}}