{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T05:28:31Z","timestamp":1771824511972,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]],"date-time":"2025-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1736726400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>SARS-CoV-2 virus, the etiological agent of the novel coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), was first identified in late 2019, following the sudden appearance of a cluster of pneumonia cases of unknown origin in China [...]<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26020616","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]],"date-time":"2025-01-13T07:40:08Z","timestamp":1736754008000},"page":"616","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["COVID-19: Lessons Learned from Molecular and Clinical Research"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6174-7111","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuela","family":"Rizzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, Universit\u00e0 del Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy"},{"name":"IRCAD (Interdisciplinary Research Center of Autoimmune Diseases), Universit\u00e0 del Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8322-9158","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pier Paolo","family":"Sainaghi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCAD (Interdisciplinary Research Center of Autoimmune Diseases), Universit\u00e0 del Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine, Universit\u00e0 del Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-022-00713-0","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis","volume":"20","author":"Lamers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(23)00217-5","article-title":"WHO ends the COVID-19 public health emergency","volume":"11","author":"Burki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jcim.2c01352","article-title":"Emerging dominant SARS-CoV-2 variants","volume":"63","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Chem. Inf. Model."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rizzi, M., Tonello, S., Brinno, C., Zecca, E., Matino, E., Cittone, M., Rizzi, E., Casciaro, G.F., D\u2019Onghia, D., and Colangelo, D. (2023). SARS-CoV-2 infection risk is higher in vaccinated patients with inflammatory autoimmune diseases or liver transplantation treated with mycophenolate due to an impaired antiviral immune response: Results of the extended follow up of the RIVALSA prospective cohort. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1185278"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"CD015618","article-title":"Laboratory-based molecular test alternatives to RT-PCR for the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"10","author":"Dinnes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"CD013705","article-title":"Rapid, point-of-care antigen tests for diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"7","author":"Dinnes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bjid.2024.103724","article-title":"Comparative analysis of asymptomatic infection prevalence in Beta, Delta, and Omicron surges of COVID-19","volume":"28","author":"Jafari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Braz. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rizzi, M., D\u2019Onghia, D., Tonello, S., Minisini, R., Colangelo, D., Bellan, M., Castello, L.M., Gavelli, F., Avanzi, G.C., and Pirisi, M. (2023). COVID-19 Biomarkers at the crossroad between patient stratification and targeted therapy: The role of validated and proposed parameters. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24087099"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shansky, Y.D., Yanushevich, O.O., Gospodarik, A.V., Maev, I.V., Krikheli, N.I., Levchenko, O.V., Zaborovsky, A.V., Evdokimov, V.V., Solodov, A.A., and Bely, P.A. (2024). Evaluation of serum and urine biomarkers for severe COVID-19. Front. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2024.1357659"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mousa, A., Blok, S.G., Karssen, D., Aman, J., Annema, J.T., Bogaard, H.J., Bonta, P.I., Haaksma, M.E., Heldeweg, M.L.A., and Lieveld, A.W.E. (2024). Correlation between serum biomarkers and lung ultrasound in COVID-19: An observational study. Diagnostics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14040421"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resinv.2024.09.011","article-title":"Combined use of serum ferritin and KL-6 levels as biomarkers for predicting COVID-19 severity","volume":"62","author":"Tanaka","year":"2024","journal-title":"Respir. Investig."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2024.156776","article-title":"Role of interleukin-6, serum ferritin, and d-dimer in hospitalized COVID-19 patients","volume":"184","author":"Gupta","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iam-Arunthai, K., Chamnanchanunt, S., Thungthong, P., Chinapha, A., Nakhahes, C., Suwanban, T., and Umemura, T. (2024). COVID-19 with high-sensitivity CRP associated with worse dynamic clinical parameters and outcomes. Front. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2024.1346646"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.23736\/S0031-0808.22.04705-X","article-title":"Baseline plasma SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection predicts an adverse COVID-19 evolution in moderate to severe hospitalized patients","volume":"64","author":"Rizzi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Panminerva Med."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"e20240028en","article-title":"Identification of distinct phenotypes and improving prognosis using metabolic biomarkers in COVID-19 patients","volume":"36","author":"Santana","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Care Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1007\/s11739-024-03547-1","article-title":"Novel COVID-19 biomarkers identified through multi-omics data analysis: N-acetyl-4-O-acetylneuraminic acid, N-acetyl-L-alanine, N-acetyltriptophan, palmitoylcarnitine, and glycerol 1-myristate","volume":"19","author":"Alves","year":"2024","journal-title":"Intern. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castelli, V., Cimini, A., and Ferri, C. (2020). Cytokine storm in COVID-19: \u201cWhen you come out of the storm, you won\u2019t be the same person who walked in\u201d. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.02132"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1775","article-title":"Case-fatality rate and characteristics of patients dying in relation to COVID-19 in Italy","volume":"323","author":"Onder","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20201576","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2020-1576","article-title":"COVID-19 in children and the dynamics of infection in families","volume":"146","author":"Wagner","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e172","DOI":"10.1097\/INF.0000000000003497","article-title":"The role of children and young people in the transmission of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"41","author":"Strenger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rizzi, M., Avellis, V., Messina, A., Germano, C., Tavella, E., Dodaro, V., Vitale, R., Revelli, A., Zola, P., and Picone, S. (2024). Vitamin D supplementation in neonatal and infant MIS-C following COVID-19 infection. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25073712"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khafaja, S., Youssef, N., El Zein, Z., Boutros, C.F., Bou Karroum, S., Abdel-Halim, N., Salameh, R., Hodroj, D., El Meski, N., and Nasrallah, O. (2023). Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C) and \u201cNear MIS-C\u201d: A continuum?. Front. Pediatr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2022.988706"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jped.2021.08.006","article-title":"Multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS-C): A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical characteristics, treatment, and outcomes","volume":"98","author":"Santos","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18537","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.4c04492","article-title":"Enhancing SARS-CoV-2 lineage surveillance through the integration of a simple and direct qPCR-based protocol adaptation with established machine learning algorithms","volume":"96","author":"Aksenen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-023-00878-2","article-title":"The evolution of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"21","author":"Markov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146387","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gene.2022.146387","article-title":"Role of genomics in combating COVID-19 pandemic","volume":"823","author":"Saravanan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gene"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70047","DOI":"10.1111\/irv.70047","article-title":"Technological barriers to routine genomic surveillance for vaccine development against SARS-CoV-2 in Africa: A systematic review","volume":"18","author":"Konono","year":"2024","journal-title":"Influenza Other Respir. Viruses"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2023.105405","article-title":"Global SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance: What we have learned (so far)","volume":"108","author":"Tosta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7003","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-33713-y","article-title":"Global disparities in SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance","volume":"13","author":"Brito","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gheorghita, R., Soldanescu, I., Lobiuc, A., Caliman Sturdza, O.A., Filip, R., Constantinescu-Bercu, A., Dimian, M., Mangul, S., and Covasa, M. (2024). The knowns and unknowns of long COVID-19: From mechanisms to therapeutical approaches. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1344086"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2024.07.054","article-title":"Mechanisms of long COVID and the path toward therapeutics","volume":"187","author":"Peluso","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)01136-X","article-title":"Long COVID: A clinical update","volume":"404","author":"Greenhalgh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28122","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.28122","article-title":"COVID-19 immunopathology: From acute diseases to chronic sequelae","volume":"95","author":"Arish","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skevaki, C., Moschopoulos, C.D., Fragkou, P.C., Grote, K., Schieffer, E., and Schieffer, B. (2024). Long-COVID-pathophysiology, current concepts and future directions. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., Online ahead of print.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2024.12.1074"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lebbe, A., Aboulwafa, A., Bayraktar, N., Mushannen, B., Ayoub, S., Sarker, S., Abdalla, M.N., Mohammed, I., Mushannen, M., and Yagan, L. (2024). New onset of acute and chronic hepatic diseases post-COVID-19 infection: A systematic review. Biomedicines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12092065"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcad.2023.01.003","article-title":"The acute and chronic implications of the COVID-19 virus on the cardiovascular system in adults: A systematic review","volume":"76","author":"Ashton","year":"2023","journal-title":"Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1157","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehac031","article-title":"Long COVID: Post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 with a cardiovascular focus","volume":"43","author":"Raman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1632","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.16662","article-title":"A guide to COVID-19 antiviral therapeutics: A summary and perspective of the antiviral weapons against SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"291","author":"Brady","year":"2024","journal-title":"FEBS J."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/2\/616\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,8]],"date-time":"2025-10-08T10:27:50Z","timestamp":1759919270000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/2\/616"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26020616"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26020616","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,13]]}}}