{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T02:50:54Z","timestamp":1790650254322,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":115,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]],"date-time":"2025-02-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739232000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Zoowalk for Autism Research annual fundraiser"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Para-cresol (p-cresol), and its primary human metabolite p-cresol sulfate (pCS), are among the most studied gut-derived metabolites relevant to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). P-cresol is produced by bacterial modification of phenylalanine or tyrosine and is one of many potentially deleterious metabolites produced by the gut microbiota. Seventeen studies have observed p-cresol and\/or p-cresol sulfate as being higher in the urine of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) vs. controls. P-cresol has harmful effects on the body, including within the gut, brain, kidneys, liver, immune system, and mitochondria. Some of these effects may contribute to autism and comorbid symptoms. In the gut, p-cresol acts as an antibiotic, altering the gut microbiome to favor the bacteria that produce it. In the mitochondria, p-cresol disrupts ATP production and increases oxidative stress, which is also common in autism. In the brain, p-cresol impairs neuronal development. P-cresol inactivates dopamine beta-hydroxylase, which converts dopamine to noradrenaline. P-cresol sulfate impairs kidney function and is linked to chronic kidney disease (CKD), which is more common in ASD adults. P-cresol also interferes with immune function. Three animal studies have demonstrated that p-cresol causes autism-related symptoms in mice, and that mice can be recovered by the administration of fecal microbiota transplant from healthy mice. Similarly, it was found that microbiota transplant therapy treatment in children with ASD significantly reduced p-cresol sulfate levels to normal and led to significant improvements in gastrointestinal (GI) and ASD symptoms. In summary, p-cresol and pCS likely contribute to ASD core symptoms in a substantial subset of children with ASD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26041513","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]],"date-time":"2025-02-11T09:36:05Z","timestamp":1739266565000},"page":"1513","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Review of Elevated Para-Cresol in Autism and Possible Impact on Symptoms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Christina K.","family":"Flynn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biodesign Center for Health Through Microbiomes, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"},{"name":"School for Engineering of Matter, Transport, and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8683-4062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James B.","family":"Adams","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biodesign Center for Health Through Microbiomes, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"},{"name":"School for Engineering of Matter, Transport, and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6064-3524","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosa","family":"Krajmalnik-Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biodesign Center for Health Through Microbiomes, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"},{"name":"School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3205-3188","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexander","family":"Khoruts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Center for Immunology and BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8779-2781","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael J.","family":"Sadowsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6732-9175","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Khemlal","family":"Nirmalkar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biodesign Center for Health Through Microbiomes, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Evelyn","family":"Takyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biodesign Center for Health Through Microbiomes, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-1779-6588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Whiteley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ESPA Research, Sunderland SR5 3RL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1111\/phil.12034","article-title":"DSM-5","volume":"45","author":"Earle","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philos. 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