{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T05:47:56Z","timestamp":1790315276879,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":104,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,4]],"date-time":"2025-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741046400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Doctoral Grants of the University of Iceland Research Fund"},{"name":"EpiEndo Pharmaceuticals"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The respiratory epithelium maintains the barrier against inhaled harmful agents. When barrier failure occurs, as in several respiratory diseases, acute or chronic inflammation leading to destructive effects and exacerbations can occur. Macrolides are used to treat a spectrum of infections but are also known for off-label use. Some macrolides, particularly azithromycin (AZM), reduce exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), whereby its efficacy is thought to be due to its effects on inflammation and oxidative stress. In vitro data indicate that AZM reduces epithelial barrier failure, evidenced by increased transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER). Here, we compared the effects of macrolides on differentiation and barrier integrity in VA10 cells, a bronchial epithelial cell line for 14 and 21 days. Erythromycin, clarithromycin, roxithromycin, AZM, solithromycin, and tobramycin (an aminoglycoside) were analyzed using RNA sequencing, barrier integrity assays, and immunostaining to evaluate effects on the epithelium. All macrolides affected the gene expression of pathways involved in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, metabolism, and immunomodulation. Treatment with AZM, clarithromycin, and erythromycin raised TEER and induced phospholipid retention. AZM treatment was distinct in terms of enhancement of the epithelial barrier, retention of phospholipids, vesicle build-up, and its effect on gene sets related to keratinocyte differentiation and establishment of skin barrier.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26052287","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,4]],"date-time":"2025-03-04T13:31:31Z","timestamp":1741095091000},"page":"2287","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The Non-Antibacterial Effects of Azithromycin and Other Macrolides on the Bronchial Epithelial Barrier and Cellular Differentiation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-1818-567X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arni","family":"Asbjarnarson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 101 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3261-4504","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jon Petur","family":"Joelsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 101 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fridrik R.","family":"Gardarsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EpiEndo Pharmaceuticals, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4860-6311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Snaevar","family":"Sigurdsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 101 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7098-8451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael J.","family":"Parnham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EpiEndo Pharmaceuticals, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0757-1936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer A.","family":"Kricker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EpiEndo Pharmaceuticals, 102 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9645-9665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thorarinn","family":"Gudjonsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Health Sciences, University of Iceland, 101 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"},{"name":"Department of Laboratory Hematology, Landsp\u00edtali-University Hospital, 101 Reykjav\u00edk, Iceland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raby, K.L., Michaeloudes, C., Tonkin, J., Chung, K.F., and Bhavsar, P.K. 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