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Such evidence may implicate FMR1, a high-confidence gene associated with AU, in components of the AU phenotype. Prosody (i.e., using intonation and rhythm in speech to express meaning) is a pragmatic feature widely impacted in AU. Prosodic differences have also been observed in unaffected relatives of autistic individuals and in those with fragile X syndrome, although prosody has not been extensively studied among FMR1 premutation carriers. This study investigated how FMR1 variability may specifically influence prosody by examining the prosodic characteristics and related neural processing of prosodic features in women carrying the FMR1 premutation (PM). In Study 1, acoustic measures of prosody (i.e., in intonation and rhythm) were examined in speech samples elicited from a semi-structured narrative task. Study 2 examined the neural frequency following response (FFR) as an index of speech prosodic processing. Findings revealed differences in the production of intonation and rhythm in PM carriers relative to controls, with patterns that parallel differences identified in parents of autistic individuals. No differences in neural processing of prosodic cues were found. Post hoc analyses further revealed associations between speech rhythm and FMR1 variation (number of CGG repeats) among PM carriers. Together, the results suggest that FMR1 may play a role in speech prosodic phenotypes, at least in speech production, contributing to a deeper understanding of AU-related speech and language phenotypes among FMR1 mutation carriers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26062481","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]],"date-time":"2025-03-11T06:52:30Z","timestamp":1741675950000},"page":"2481","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Prosodic Differences in Women with the FMR1 Premutation: Subtle Expression of Autism-Related Phenotypes Through Speech"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Joseph C. Y.","family":"Lau","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6849-5180","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Janna","family":"Guilfoyle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-7786-8254","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephanie","family":"Crawford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-2304-2760","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Grace","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emily","family":"Landau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiayin","family":"Xing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mitra","family":"Kumareswaran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah","family":"Ethridge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maureen","family":"Butler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lindsay","family":"Goldman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gary E.","family":"Martin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, St. John\u2019s University, Queens, NY 11439, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lili","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Neurological Sciences, and Biochemistry, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Krizman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Trent","family":"Nicol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nina","family":"Kraus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Berry-Kravis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Neurological Sciences, and Biochemistry, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Molly","family":"Losh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Butterworth, B. 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