{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T22:12:57Z","timestamp":1792188777119,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,22]],"date-time":"2025-03-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1742601600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006769","name":"Russian Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["24-74-00149"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24-74-00149"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006769","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Lomonosov Moscow State University","award":["24-74-00149"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24-74-00149"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are a serious problem affecting individuals of all ages. Mitochondrial dysfunctions represent a significant form of secondary injury and may serve as a promising target for therapeutic intervention. Our research demonstrated that craniotomy, which precedes the experimental induction of trauma in mice, can cause considerable damage to mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), disrupt the regulatory expression of angiogenesis, and increase inflammation. However, the reduction in the mtDNA copy number and glial activation occur only after a direct impact to the brain. We explored two potential therapeutic agents: the dietary supplement L-carnitine\u2014a potential reserve source of ATP for the brain\u2014and the cardiac drug mildronate, which inhibits L-carnitine but activates alternative compensatory pathways for the brain to adapt to metabolic disturbances. We found that L-carnitine injections could protect against mtDNA depletion by promoting mitochondrial biogenesis. However, they also appeared to aggravate inflammatory responses, likely due to changes in the composition of the gut microbiome. On the other hand, mildronate enhanced the expression of genes related to angiogenesis while also reducing local and systemic inflammation. Therefore, both compounds, despite their opposing metabolic effects, have the potential to be used in the treatment of secondary injuries caused by TBI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26072902","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,24]],"date-time":"2025-03-24T07:46:50Z","timestamp":1742802410000},"page":"2902","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["L-Carnitine and Mildronate Demonstrate Divergent Protective Effects on Mitochondrial DNA Quality Control and Inflammation Following Traumatic Brain Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3562-5329","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artem P.","family":"Gureev","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, 394018 Voronezh, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-1069-9108","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veronika V.","family":"Nesterova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, 394018 Voronezh, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Polina I.","family":"Babenkova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, 394018 Voronezh, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5010-3919","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mikhail E.","family":"Ivanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2838-3704","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Egor Y.","family":"Plotnikov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0581-9755","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Denis N.","family":"Silachev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurol.2020.01.356","article-title":"Epidemiology of neurological diseases in older adults","volume":"176","author":"Dumurgier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.3171\/2017.10.JNS17352","article-title":"Estimating the global incidence of traumatic brain injury","volume":"130","author":"Dewan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Butkova, T.V., Malsagova, K.A., Nakhod, V.I., Petrovskiy, D.V., Izotov, A.A., Balakin, E.I., Yurku, K.A., Umnikov, A.S., Pustovoyt, V.I., and Kaysheva, A.L. (2024). Candidate Molecular Biomarkers of Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review. Biomolecules, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom14101283"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mira, R.G., Quintanilla, R.A., and Cerpa, W. (2023). Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Induces Mitochondrial Calcium Overload and Triggers the Upregulation of NCLX in the Hippocampus. Antioxidants, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox12020403"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2012.02025.x","article-title":"Mitochondria in traumatic brain injury and mitochondrial-targeted multipotential therapeutic strategies","volume":"167","author":"Cheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"585","article-title":"Methylene blue and its potential in the treatment of traumatic brain injury, brain ischemia, and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"35","author":"Isaev","year":"2024","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103812","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dnarep.2025.103812","article-title":"Long-range PCR as a tool for evaluating mitochondrial DNA damage: Principles, benefits, and limitations of the technique","volume":"146","author":"Gureev","year":"2025","journal-title":"DNA Repair."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1089\/08977150360547062","article-title":"Age-associated mitochondrial DNA deletions are not evident chronically after experimental brain injury in the rat","volume":"20","author":"Lifshitz","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1875","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-199906230-00014","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA deletions in acute brain injury","volume":"10","author":"McDonald","year":"1999","journal-title":"NeuroReport"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1080\/15502783.2022.2091412","article-title":"Comparison of the polyphenol content and in vitro antioxidant capacity of fruit-based nutritional supplements commonly consumed by athletic and recreationally active populations","volume":"19","author":"Rickards","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Int. Soc. Sports Nutr."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, W., Pan, D., Liu, Q., Chen, X., and Wang, S. (2024). L-Carnitine in the Treatment of Psychiatric and Neurological Manifestations: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16081232"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2018.01.029","article-title":"A pilot trial of l -carnitine in patients with traumatic brain injury: Effects on biomarkers of injury","volume":"45","author":"Mahmoodpoor","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-014-8973-5","article-title":"Acetyl-L-Carnitine Prevents Methamphetamine-Induced Structural Damage on Endothelial Cells via ILK-Related MMP-9 Activity","volume":"53","author":"Fernandes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1681.2006.04425.x","article-title":"Carnitine esters prevent oxidative stress damage and energy depletion following transient forebrain ischaemia in the rat hippocampus","volume":"33","author":"Aleisa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470059593.ch8","article-title":"Choosing the right substrate","volume":"280","author":"Leverve","year":"2007","journal-title":"Novartis Found. Symp."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1408","article-title":"Severe cerebral and systemic necrotizing vasculitis developing during pregnancy in a case of systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"17","author":"Suzuki","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/S1050-1738(02)00175-5","article-title":"Mildronate cardioprotective action through carnitine-lowering effect","volume":"12","author":"Dambrova","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trends Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, F., Sui, X., Wang, Q., Li, J., Yang, W., Yang, Y., Xiao, Z., Sun, Y., Guo, X., and Yang, X. (2023). Insights into the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of meldonium after exposure to acute high altitude. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1119046"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1080\/10604450213832","article-title":"Involvement of Nitric Oxide Production in the Mildronate Mechanism of Action","volume":"12","author":"Dzintare","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev. Commun."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-7843.2004.pto_940108.x","article-title":"Effects of gamma-butyrobetaine and mildronate on nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-treated rats","volume":"94","author":"Sjakste","year":"2004","journal-title":"Basic. Clin. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2019.08.036","article-title":"Neuroprotective effects of mildronate in a rat model of traumatic brain injury","volume":"50","author":"Demir","year":"2019","journal-title":"Injury"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2010.1427","article-title":"Craniotomy: True sham for traumatic brain injury, or a sham of a sham?","volume":"28","author":"Cole","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-3816-2_11","article-title":"The Controlled Cortical Impact Model of Experimental Brain Trauma: Overview, Research Applications, and Protocol","volume":"1462","author":"Osier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-021-00616-3","article-title":"Blood GFAP as an emerging biomarker in brain and spinal cord disorders","volume":"18","author":"Abdelhak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1097\/01.LAB.0000082383.40635.FE","article-title":"Altered expression of angiopoietins during blood-brain barrier breakdown and angiogenesis","volume":"83","author":"Nourhaghighi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mod. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.20517\/2347-8659.2017.18","article-title":"The roles of endoglin gene in cerebrovascular diseases","volume":"4","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wimmer, I., Tietz, S., Nishihara, H., Deutsch, U., Sallusto, F., Gosselet, F., Lyck, R., Muller, W.A., Lassmann, H., and Engelhardt, B. (2019). PECAM-1 Stabilizes Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity and Favors Paracellular T-Cell Diapedesis Across the Blood-Brain Barrier During Neuroinflammation. Front. Immunol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00711"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2005.04.049","article-title":"Ischemia-induced changes of platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 in the hippocampal CA1 region in gerbils","volume":"1048","author":"Hwang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1002\/jlb.61.3.279","article-title":"Expression of endothelial adhesion molecules and recruitment of neutrophils after traumatic brain injury in rats","volume":"61","author":"Carlos","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.14957","article-title":"Angiopoietin-1\/Tie-2 signal after focal traumatic brain injury is potentiated by BQ788, an ETB receptor antagonist, in the mouse cerebrum: Involvement in recovery of blood\u2013brain barrier function","volume":"154","author":"Michinaga","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabo1557","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abo1557","article-title":"A blood-based marker of mitochondrial DNA damage in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"15","author":"Qi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfu185","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA damage as a peripheral biomarker for mitochondrial toxin exposure in rats","volume":"142","author":"Sanders","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gureev, A.P., Sadovnikova, I.S., Chernyshova, E.V., Tsvetkova, A.D., Babenkova, P.I., Nesterova, V.V., Krutskikh, E.P., Volodina, D.E., Samoylova, N.A., and Andrianova, N.V. (2024). Beta-Hydroxybutyrate Mitigates Sensorimotor and Cognitive Impairments in a Photothrombosis-Induced Ischemic Stroke in Mice. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25115710"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4288","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-023-03325-8","article-title":"The Ketogenic Diet but not Hydroxycitric Acid Keeps Brain Mitochondria Quality Control and mtDNA Integrity Under Focal Stroke","volume":"60","author":"Gureev","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haugen, A.C., Di Prospero, N.A., Parker, J.S., Fannin, R.D., Chou, J., Meyer, J.N., Halweg, C., Collins, J.B., Durr, A., and Fischbeck, K. (2010). Altered gene expression and DNA damage in peripheral blood cells from Friedreich\u2019s ataxia patients: Cellular model of pathology. PLoS Genet., 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1000812"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"176","article-title":"HIV-1 and HIV-1-Tat Induce Mitochondrial DNA Damage in Human Neurons","volume":"6","author":"Darbinian","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. HIV AIDS"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5470","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.10-5429","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA damage as a potential mechanism for age-related macular degeneration","volume":"51","author":"Karunadharma","year":"2010","journal-title":"Investig. Opthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fesharaki-Zadeh, A. (2022). Oxidative Stress in Traumatic Brain Injury. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232113000"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1007\/s10517-014-2649-z","article-title":"Integral indicator of oxidative stress in human blood","volume":"157","author":"Kolesnikova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bull. Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neures.2019.06.003","article-title":"Repeated mild traumatic brain injury induces persistent variations in mitochondrial DNA copy number in mesocorticolimbic neurocircuitry of the rat","volume":"155","author":"Balasubramanian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2015.06.012","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA copy number is reduced in male combat veterans with PTSD","volume":"64","author":"Bersani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1016\/j.injury.2017.11.005","article-title":"Plasma free carnitine in severe trauma: Influence of the association with traumatic brain injury","volume":"49","author":"Bounes","year":"2018","journal-title":"Injury"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3897\/rrpharmacology.6.57419","article-title":"Neuroprotective effect of L-carnitine. Focus on changing mitochondrial function","volume":"6","author":"Voronkov","year":"2020","journal-title":"Res. Results Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"8168","article-title":"Effect of levocarnitine on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion rats via activating Nrf2\/ARE signaling pathway","volume":"23","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hiskens, M.I., Li, K.M., Schneiders, A.G., and Fenning, A.S. (2023). Repetitive mild traumatic brain injury-induced neurodegeneration and inflammation is attenuated by acetyl-L-carnitine in a preclinical model. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1254382"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bordoni, L., Sawicka, A.K., Szarmach, A., Winklewski, P.J., Olek, R.A., and Gabbianelli, R. (2020). A Pilot Study on the Effects of l-Carnitine and Trimethylamine-N-Oxide on Platelet Mitochondrial DNA Methylation and CVD Biomarkers in Aged Women. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21031047"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, S., Li, X., Yang, F., Zhao, R., Pan, X., Liang, J., Tian, L., Li, X., Liu, L., and Xing, Y. (2019). Gut Microbiota-Dependent Marker TMAO in Promoting Cardiovascular Disease: Inflammation Mechanism, Clinical Prognostic, and Potential as a Therapeutic Target. Front. Pharmacol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2019.01360"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.5853\/jos.2019.00472","article-title":"Gut Microbiota and Ischemic Stroke: The Role of Trimethylamine N-Oxide","volume":"21","author":"Nam","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Stroke"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Annunziata, G., Ciampaglia, R., Cap\u00f2, X., Guerra, F., Sureda, A., Tenore, G.C., and Novellino, E. (2021). Polycystic ovary syndrome and cardiovascular risk. Could trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) be a major player? A potential upgrade forward in the DOGMA theory. Biomed. Pharmacother., 143.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.112171"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2017.08.017","article-title":"Dietary supplementation with acetyl- l -carnitine counteracts age-related alterations of mitochondrial biogenesis, dynamics and antioxidant defenses in brain of old rats","volume":"98","author":"Nicassio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1038\/jcbfm.2012.176","article-title":"Inhaled nitric oxide reduces secondary brain damage after traumatic brain injury in mice","volume":"33","author":"Terpolilli","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1038\/jcbfm.2012.2","article-title":"Pro-angiogenic effects of resveratrol in brain endothelial cells: Nitric oxide-mediated regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor and metalloproteinases","volume":"32","author":"Pagnussat","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1796","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000141133.32496.41","article-title":"PECAM-1 interacts with nitric oxide synthase in human endothelial cells: Implication for flow-induced nitric oxide synthase activation","volume":"24","author":"Dusserre","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arter. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E607","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.20466","article-title":"Human intestinal microbiota composition is associated with local and systemic inflammation in obesity","volume":"21","author":"Verdam","year":"2013","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, J.-Y., Xu, H., Cao, G.-Z., Tian, L.-L., Wang, L.-H., Zhu, N.-Q., Zhang, J.-J., and Yang, H.-J. (2023). Multi-omics reveals Dengzhan Shengmai formulation ameliorates cognitive impairments in D-galactose-induced aging mouse model by regulating CXCL12\/CXCR4 and gut microbiota. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1175970"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1002\/jnr.23315","article-title":"Mildronate improves cognition and reduces amyloid-\u03b2 pathology in transgenic Alzheimer\u2019s disease mice","volume":"92","author":"Beitnere","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2013.06.002","article-title":"Neurobehavioral effects of l-carnitine and its ability to modulate genotoxicity and oxidative stress biomarkers in mice","volume":"110","author":"Vieira","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6749","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01906-15","article-title":"Use of 16S rRNA Gene-Targeted Group-Specific Primers for Real-Time PCR Analysis of Predominant Bacteria in Mouse Feces","volume":"81","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/7\/2902\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:58:37Z","timestamp":1760029117000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/7\/2902"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,22]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26072902"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26072902","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,22]]}}}