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11.10.2022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DM 1557 11.10.2022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003196","name":"Italian Ministry of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Ricerca Corrente 2025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Ricerca Corrente 2025"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chronic inflammation is a pivotal driver in the progression of atherosclerosis, significantly contributing to the burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Patients with chronic inflammatory diseases, such as inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) (e.g., ulcerative colitis and Crohn\u2019s disease), rheumatological disorders, as well as individuals with auto-immune diseases (such as systemic lupus erythematosus), present a higher risk of major adverse cardiac events (MACEs). Despite their elevated CVD risk, these populations remain underrepresented in cardiovascular research, leading to a critical underestimation of their cardiovascular risk (CVR) in clinical practice. Furthermore, even recent CVR scores poorly predict the risk of events in these specific populations. This narrative review examines the physiopathological mechanisms linking chronic inflammation, immunomodulation, atherosclerosis, thrombosis and cardiovascular events. We review data from epidemiological studies and clinical trials to explore the potential cardiovascular benefits of anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory therapies. Despite existing evidence, significant gaps in knowledge remain. Future research is mandatory, focusing on innovative strategies for risk stratification and optimization, including lipidomics, proteomics, advanced inflammatory markers, microbiota profiling, and cardiovascular imaging. Addressing these unmet needs will enhance understanding of cardiovascular risk in chronic inflammatory diseases, enabling tailored interventions and better outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26073071","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,28]],"date-time":"2025-03-28T04:11:40Z","timestamp":1743135100000},"page":"3071","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":47,"title":["Chronic Inflammatory Diseases and Cardiovascular Risk: Current Insights and Future Strategies for Optimal Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7504-3775","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"Cacciatore","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geriatrics, Orthopedics and Rheumatology, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario \u201cAgostino Gemelli\u201d IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-0734-9712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvia","family":"Andaloro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Medicine and Surgery, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9269-8829","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Bernardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, Corso della Repubblica 79, 04100 Latina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Armando","family":"Oterino Manzanas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, Hospital Universitario de Salamanca-IBSAL, Paseo de San Vicente, 58-182, 37007 Salamanca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6443-4121","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi","family":"Spadafora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, Corso della Repubblica 79, 04100 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47\u201383 Bd de l\u2019H\u00f4pital, 75013 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5552-6382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"And\u00f2","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Messina, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Policlinico \u201cGaetano Martino\u201d, Via Consolare Valeria, 1, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0703-1331","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephane","family":"Manzo-Silberman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ACTION Study Group, Inserm UMRS1166, Heart Institute, Piti\u00e9-Salpetriere Hospital, Sorbonne University, 47-83 Bd de l\u2019H\u00f4pital, 75013 Paris, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jeanine","family":"Roeters van Lennep","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Cardiovascular Institute, Erasmus Medical Center, Dr. Molewaterplein 40, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5750-9746","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Matteo","family":"Tosato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario \u201cAgostino Gemelli\u201d IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Landi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geriatrics, Orthopedics and Rheumatology, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario \u201cAgostino Gemelli\u201d IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6103-8510","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Biondi-Zoccai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical-Surgical Sciences and Biotechnologies, Sapienza University of Rome, Corso della Repubblica 79, 04100 Latina, Italy"},{"name":"Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, Via Corriera, 1, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9567-6983","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuele","family":"Marzetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Geriatrics, Orthopedics and Rheumatology, Universit\u00e0 Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, 00168 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Fondazione Policlinico Universitario \u201cAgostino Gemelli\u201d IRCCS, Largo A. 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