{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:03:18Z","timestamp":1792789398703,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":322,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,12]],"date-time":"2025-04-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744416000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Pomeranian University in S\u0142upsk (S\u0142upsk, Poland)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This narrative review presents the role of antioxidants in regulating the gut microbiota and the impact on the gut\u2013brain axis, with a particular focus on neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer\u2019s (AD) and Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD). These diseases are characterised by cognitive decline, motor dysfunction, and neuroinflammation, all of which are significantly exacerbated by oxidative stress. This review elucidates the contribution of oxidative damage to disease progression and explores the potential of antioxidants to mitigate these pathological processes through modulation of the gut microbiota and associated pathways. Based on recent studies retrieved from reputable databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, this article outlines the mechanisms by which antioxidants influence gut health and exert neuroprotective effects. Specifically, it discusses how antioxidants, including polyphenols, vitamins, and flavonoids, contribute to the reduction in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and neuroinflammation, thereby promoting neuronal survival and minimising oxidative damage in the brain. In addition, the article explores the role of antioxidants in modulating key molecular pathways involved in oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, such as the NF-\u03baB, Nrf2, MAPK, and PI3K\/AKT pathways, which regulate ROS generation, inflammatory cytokine expression, and antioxidant responses essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis in both the gut and the central nervous system. In addition, this review explores the complex relationship between gut-derived metabolites, oxidative stress, and neurodegenerative diseases, highlighting how dysbiosis\u2014an imbalance in the gut microbiota\u2014can exacerbate oxidative stress and contribute to neuroinflammation, thereby accelerating the progression of such diseases as AD and PD. The review also examines the role of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by beneficial gut bacteria in modulating these pathways to attenuate neuroinflammation and oxidative damage. Furthermore, the article explores the therapeutic potential of microbiota-targeted interventions, including antioxidant delivery by probiotics and prebiotics, as innovative strategies to restore microbial homeostasis and support brain health. By synthesising current knowledge on the interplay between antioxidants, the gut\u2013brain axis, and the molecular mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration, this review highlights the therapeutic promise of antioxidant-based interventions in mitigating oxidative stress and neurodegenerative disease progression. It also highlights the need for further research into antioxidant-rich dietary strategies and microbiota-focused therapies as promising avenues for the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26083658","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,14]],"date-time":"2025-04-14T06:18:36Z","timestamp":1744611516000},"page":"3658","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":45,"title":["Role of Antioxidants in Modulating the Microbiota\u2013Gut\u2013Brain Axis and Their Impact on Neurodegenerative Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4669-1092","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natalia","family":"Kurhaluk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology, Pomeranian University in S\u0142upsk, Arciszewski St. 22 B, 76-200 S\u0142upsk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1978-6018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Piotr","family":"Kami\u0144ski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Division of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, M. Sk\u0142odowska-Curie St. 9, 85-094 Bydgoszcz, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Zielona G\u00f3ra, Prof. Z. Szafran St. 1, 65-516 Zielona G\u00f3ra, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5197-4281","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafa\u0142","family":"Bilski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, M. Kar\u0142owicz St. 24, 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7277-721X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Renata","family":"Ko\u0142odziejska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, M. Kar\u0142owicz St. 24, 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4492-4796","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alina","family":"Wo\u017aniak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biology and Biochemistry, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru\u0144, M. Kar\u0142owicz St. 24, 85-092 Bydgoszcz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3951-9005","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Halina","family":"Tkaczenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biology, Pomeranian University in S\u0142upsk, Arciszewski St. 22 B, 76-200 S\u0142upsk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S38","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-4887.2012.00493.x","article-title":"Defining the human microbiome","volume":"70","author":"Ursell","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Chen, R., Zhang, D., Qi, S., and Liu, Y. (2023). Metabolite interactions between host and microbiota during health and disease: Which feeds the other?. Biomed. 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