{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T02:00:06Z","timestamp":1780452006907,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,16]],"date-time":"2025-04-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744761600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Consejo Nacional de Humanidades Ciencias y Tecnolog\u00edas (CONAHCyT), Mexico","award":["104119"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["104119"]}]},{"name":"Consejo Nacional de Humanidades Ciencias y Tecnolog\u00edas (CONAHCyT), Mexico","award":["#362402"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#362402"]}]},{"name":"CONAHCyT, M\u00e9xico","award":["104119"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["104119"]}]},{"name":"CONAHCyT, M\u00e9xico","award":["#362402"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#362402"]}]},{"name":"Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca","award":["104119"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["104119"]}]},{"name":"Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca","award":["#362402"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#362402"]}]},{"name":"Servicios de Salud del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS-BIENESTAR)","award":["104119"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["104119"]}]},{"name":"Servicios de Salud del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS-BIENESTAR)","award":["#362402"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#362402"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Extracellular vesicles (EVs) can transport molecules that combat viruses, such as RNA against SARS-CoV-2. Bacterial coinfections can help establish certain viruses and worsen diseases. Thus, we designed a model to induce the secretion of polydisperse EVs shown with SARS-CoV-2 and bacterial coinfection using macrophages and E. coli fractions as in vitro inducers. We obtained short and large macrophage EVs. The E. coli fraction was designated as SDS-soluble bacterial membrane fraction and its associated proteins (SDS-SBMF). The proteins were identified using a mass spectrometer. SDS-SBMF contained mainly OmpF, OmpA, OmpC, OmpX, and lpp. The SDS-SBMF macrophages induced the secretion of polydisperse EVs at 30 min, reaching optimal secretion at 120 min, as observed via scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy. Macrophage EVs contained mainly HSP7C, actin, apolipoprotein, GAPDH, annexin A5, PKM, moesin, and cofilin. We observed an increase in EVs in the bloodstream of patients with SARS-CoV-2 and bacterial coinfection, in addition to the presence of SARS-CoV-2 genes (E, ORF) in EVs. This in vitro method for inducing EVs has the potential to be used to obtain larger samples for study and for the detection of diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers of different diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26083741","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,16]],"date-time":"2025-04-16T04:05:31Z","timestamp":1744776331000},"page":"3741","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A Fraction of Escherichia coli Bacteria Induces an Increase in the Secretion of Extracellular Vesicle Polydispersity in Macrophages: Possible Involvement of Secreted EVs in the Diagnosis of COVID-19 with Bacterial Coinfections"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Francisco","family":"Sierra-L\u00f3pez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies, Av. 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IPN 2508, Zacatenco, Mexico City 07360, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7671-7943","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanuel","family":"R\u00edos-Castro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Genomics, Proteomics and Metabolomics Core Facility (UGPM) LaNSE, Center for Research and Advanced Studies, Av. IPN 2508, Zacatenco, Mexico City 07360, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2560-3935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Carlos","family":"Osorio-Trujillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies, Av. IPN 2508, Zacatenco, Mexico City 07360, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anel","family":"Lagunes-Guill\u00e9n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies, Av. IPN 2508, Zacatenco, Mexico City 07360, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bibiana","family":"Ch\u00e1vez-Mungu\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies, Av. IPN 2508, Zacatenco, Mexico City 07360, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Susana Bernardo","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unidad de Investigaci\u00f3n en Salud, Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Ixtapaluca, Servicios de Salud del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social para el Bienestar (IMSS-BIENESTAR), Mexico, Carr Mex-Puebla Km 34.5 col., Zoquiapan, Mexico City 56530, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gustavo","family":"Acosta-Altamirano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hospital General de M\u00e9xico, Eje 2A Sur (Dr. Balmis) No. 148, Cuauht\u00e9moc, Doctores, CDMX, Mexico City 06726, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5085-814X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patricia","family":"Talam\u00e1s-Rohana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Infectomics and Molecular Pathogenesis, Center for Research and Advanced Studies, Av. 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