{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T11:39:44Z","timestamp":1782387584788,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,20]],"date-time":"2025-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747699200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Tempus Public Foundation, Hungary"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Resistance of breast cancers to chemotherapy remains a global challenge to date. Drug combination studies between anti-cancer agents are increasingly becoming therapeutic strategies, geared towards alleviating breast cancers. Previously, 2-deoxyglucose has been shown to target and interrupt glycolysis. Available evidence also suggests that diclofenac, which was originally designed as a pain reliever, could inhibit the proliferation of breast cancer cells. However, the reverse Warburg effect and other metabolic reprogramming mechanisms in breast cancers limit the pharmacological application of both 2-deoxyglucose and diclofenac as mono-therapeutic agents. The present study explores the additive anti-cancer effects of 2-deoxyglucose and diclofenac sodium on breast cancer cells. In this study, MDA-231 and MCF7 cells were treated with 2-deoxyglucose and diclofenac sodium in single and combination doses before being evaluated for viability, cell growth, reactive oxygen species, apoptotic and necrotic phases, and migration abilities. Additionally, immunoblotting of pro-apoptotic proteins, Caspase-3 and Caspase-9, and a hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha, was also performed. The results showed that combination treatments of the cells with the drugs exhibited additive anti-cancer effects by limiting proliferation, enhancing cytotoxic reactive oxygen species generation, enhancing apoptosis and necrosis, limiting colony formation and expansion of cells, and inhibiting cell migration. The degrees of cytotoxicity of combined treatments were almost similar in both cell lines, although with minimal differences. Put together, these results reveal the novel synergistic effects of 2-deoxyglucose and diclofenac sodium on breast cancer cells, hence potentially elevating their pharmacological profile in the overall breast cancer therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26104894","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,20]],"date-time":"2025-05-20T06:10:46Z","timestamp":1747721446000},"page":"4894","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Synergistic Effects of 2-Deoxyglucose and Diclofenac Sodium on Breast Cancer Cells: A Comparative Evaluation of MDA-231 and MCF7 Cells"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1510-8394","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Geofrey Ouma","family":"Maloba","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of P\u00e9cs Medical School, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0349-9906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom","family":"Were","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega 190-50100, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7534-2748","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erick","family":"Barasa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega 190-50100, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2982-1042","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nasreldeen","family":"Mohamed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of P\u00e9cs Medical School, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arshi","family":"Arshi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of P\u00e9cs Medical School, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1906-4333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ferenc","family":"Gallyas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, University of P\u00e9cs Medical School, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21203","article-title":"Breast cancer statistics, 2013","volume":"64","author":"DeSantis","year":"2014","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. 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