{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T14:41:09Z","timestamp":1787236869266,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,22]],"date-time":"2025-05-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747872000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coronary artery disease and vitamin D deficiency are both widespread conditions with a high incidence worldwide. Coronary artery disease is a complex illness with variable manifestation and pathogenesis. It often involves the development of atherosclerosis, and it frequently has serious or even fatal consequences for the patient. Vitamin D receptor expression is found in many tissues throughout the body, which results in a broad effect of the vitamin. Studies have found correlations between vitamin D deficiency and the development of coronary artery disease as well as other cardiovascular diseases, such as hypertension. This review will discuss randomized controlled trials conducted from 2020 forward, aiming to elucidate whether vitamin D supplements have the potential to be used as an add-on treatment for coronary artery disease. The randomized controlled trials all used vitamin D as intervention and tested a population suffering from coronary artery disease or the risk of developing it. Even though animal studies found evidence that vitamin D can regulate inflammation, lipid profile, foam cell formation, vessel reactivity, and blood pressure, which are all mediators in the development of atherosclerosis, the results from the randomized controlled trials were ambiguous. The general older population did not seem to benefit from the treatment, but different subgroups such as patients with type 2 diabetes and patients with more developed coronary artery disease exhibited some positive effects from the treatment. Furthermore, vitamin D showed cardioprotective effects following coronary artery bypass surgery, which make it a possible add-on treatment before invasive coronary intervention. The question in focus still needs further research and a more focused approach on subgroups that may benefit from treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26115002","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,22]],"date-time":"2025-05-22T10:24:45Z","timestamp":1747909485000},"page":"5002","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Current Knowledge of the Impact of Vitamin D in Coronary Artery Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Freja Esager","family":"Jespersen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4991-3105","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniela","family":"Grimm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark"},{"name":"Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1120-0246","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcus","family":"Kr\u00fcger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8160-859X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Markus","family":"Wehland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microgravity and Translational Regenerative Medicine, Otto von Guericke University, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2023.11.007","article-title":"Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases and Risks, 1990\u20132022","volume":"82","author":"Mensah","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1186\/s12944-022-01696-w","article-title":"Lipid metabolism patterns and relevant clinical and molecular features of coronary artery disease patients: An integrated bioinformatic analysis","volume":"21","author":"Liao","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.123.066680","article-title":"ChaMP-CMD: A Phenotype-Blinded, Randomized Controlled, Cross-Over Trial","volume":"149","author":"Sinha","year":"2024","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3415","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehae177","article-title":"2024 ESC Guidelines for the management of chronic coronary syndromes","volume":"45","author":"Vrints","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3720","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehad191","article-title":"2023 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes","volume":"44","author":"Byrne","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13661","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-021-10805-3","article-title":"A two-stage classification model integrating feature fusion for coronary artery disease detection and classification","volume":"81","author":"Khan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcct.2022.03.001","article-title":"Coronary CTA plaque volume severity stages according to invasive coronary angiography and FFR","volume":"16","author":"Min","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Comput. Tomogr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcct.2022.07.002","article-title":"CAD-RADSTM 2.0\u20142022 Coronary Artery Disease-Reporting and Data System: An Expert Consensus Document of the Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT), the American College of Cardiology (ACC), the American College of Radiology (ACR), and the North America Society of Cardiovascular Imaging (NASCI)","volume":"16","author":"Cury","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Comput. Tomogr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Samaras, A.D., Moustakidis, S., Apostolopoulos, I.D., Papandrianos, N., and Papageorgiou, E. (2023). Classification models for assessing coronary artery disease instances using clinical and biometric data: An explainable man-in-the-loop approach. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-33500-9"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16812","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.28350","article-title":"A review on coronary artery disease, its risk factors, and therapeutics","volume":"234","author":"Malakar","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cell. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2056","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-022-01974-1","article-title":"Effects of elevated systolic blood pressure on ischemic heart disease: A Burden of Proof study","volume":"28","author":"Razo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjpc\/zwab213","article-title":"Burden of ischemic heart disease and its attributable risk factors in 204 countries and territories, 1990\u20132019","volume":"29","author":"Safiri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e223849","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2022.3849","article-title":"Association of Habitual Alcohol Intake With Risk of Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"5","author":"Biddinger","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1177\/2048872619858285","article-title":"Risk prediction tools in cardiovascular disease prevention: A report from the ESC Prevention of CVD Programme led by the European Association of Preventive Cardiology (EAPC) in collaboration with the Acute Cardiovascular Care Association (ACCA) and the Association of Cardiovascular Nursing and Allied Professions (ACNAP)","volume":"9","author":"Rossello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Acute Cardiovasc. Care"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2349","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1605086","article-title":"Genetic Risk, Adherence to a Healthy Lifestyle, and Coronary Disease","volume":"375","author":"Khera","year":"2016","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1670","article-title":"Diagnostic and Prognostic Implications of Coronary Flow Capacity: A Comprehensive Cross-Modality Physiological Concept in Ischemic Heart Disease","volume":"8","author":"Meuwissen","year":"2015","journal-title":"JACC Cardiovasc. Interv."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Bakris, G.L., Sorrentino, M.J., and Laffin, L.J. (2024). Ischemic Heart Disease. Hypertension: A Companion to Braunwalds\u2019s Heart Disease, Elsevier. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3175","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/eht351","article-title":"Endothelial dysfunction over the course of coronary artery disease","volume":"34","author":"Flammer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9503","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb46090564","article-title":"Biomarkers That Seem to Have the Greatest Impact on Promoting the Formation of Atherosclerotic Plaque in Current Scientific Research","volume":"46","author":"Leksa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.096438","article-title":"Prediction of progression of coronary artery disease and clinical outcomes using vascular profiling of endothelial shear stress and arterial plaque characteristics: The PREDICTION Study","volume":"126","author":"Stone","year":"2012","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"2580","article-title":"Low shear stress induces endothelial cell apoptosis and monocyte adhesion by upregulating PECAM-1 expression","volume":"21","author":"Xie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2803","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.10.021","article-title":"Impact of Plaque Burden Versus Stenosis on Ischemic Events in Patients With Coronary Atherosclerosis","volume":"76","author":"Mortensen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1915922","article-title":"Initial Invasive or Conservative Strategy for Stable Coronary Disease","volume":"382","author":"Maron","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cui, A., Zhang, T., Xiao, P., Fan, Z., Wang, H., and Zhuang, Y. (2023). Global and regional prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in population-based studies from 2000 to 2022: A pooled analysis of 7.9 million participants. Front. Nutr., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2023.1070808"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"e08145","article-title":"Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for vitamin D, including the derivation of a conversion factor for calcidiol monohydrate","volume":"21","author":"Turck","year":"2023","journal-title":"Efsa J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2078","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehad165","article-title":"Vitamin D in atherosclerosis and cardiovascular events","volume":"44","author":"Carbone","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cosentino, N., Campodonico, J., Milazzo, V., De Metrio, M., Brambilla, M., Camera, M., and Marenzi, G. (2021). Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Disease: Current Evidence and Future Perspectives. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13103603"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, H., Horst, R.L., Koszewski, N.J., Goff, J.P., Christakos, S., and Fleet, J.C. (2020). Targeting 1,25(OH)(2)D-mediated calcium absorption machinery in proximal colon with calcitriol glycosides and glucuronides. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 198.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2019.105574"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chankamngoen, W., Thammayon, N., Suntornsaratoon, P., Nammultriputtar, K., Kitiyanant, N., Donpromma, N., Chaichanan, J., Supcharoen, P., Teerapo, K., and Teerapornpuntakit, J. (2024). Fibroblast growth factor-21 potentiates the stimulatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on transepithelial calcium transport and TRPV6 Ca2+ channel expression. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 733.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2024.150429"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2021.07.005","article-title":"Physiology of Calcium Homeostasis: An Overview","volume":"50","author":"Matikainen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakamichi, Y., Liu, Z., Mori, T., He, Z., Yasuda, H., Takahashi, N., and Udagawa, N. (2023). The vitamin D receptor in osteoblastic cells but not secreted parathyroid hormone is crucial for soft tissue calcification induced by the proresorptive activity of 1,25(OH)2D3. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 232.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2023.106351"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111077","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2024.111077","article-title":"Modeling calcium and magnesium balance: Regulation by calciotropic hormones and adaptations under varying dietary intake","volume":"27","author":"Dutta","year":"2024","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4393","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI46122","article-title":"FGF23 induces left ventricular hypertrophy","volume":"121","author":"Faul","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stratford, K., Haykal-Coates, N., Thompson, L., Farraj, A., and Hazari, M. (2021). Early-life persistent vitamin D deficiency-induced cardiovascular dysfunction in mice is mediated by transient receptor potential C channels. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol., 206.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsbmb.2020.105804"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1007\/s10557-021-07143-9","article-title":"Vitamin D3 Supplementation Alleviates Left Ventricular Dysfunction in a Mouse Model of Diet-Induced Type 2 Diabetes: Potential Involvement of Cardiac Lipotoxicity Modulation","volume":"36","author":"Philouze","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.4149\/gpb_2023005","article-title":"Cholecalciferol affects cardiac proteins regulating malonyl-CoA availability and intracellular calcium level","volume":"42","author":"Ivkovic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gen. Physiol. Biophys."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4798","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-18538-x","article-title":"Macrophage secretion of miR-106b-5p causes renin-dependent hypertension","volume":"11","author":"Oh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2273","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2020.1822088","article-title":"Vitamin D3-VDR-PTPN6 axis mediated autophagy contributes to the inhibition of macrophage foam cell formation","volume":"17","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1326","DOI":"10.1177\/1535370220943124","article-title":"Early myocardial injury biomarkers in diabetic hyperlipidemic rats: Impact of 10-dehydrogingerdione and vitamin D3","volume":"245","author":"Elseweidy","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb43010007","article-title":"Vitamin D Deficiency Reduces Vascular Reactivity of Coronary Arterioles in Male Rats","volume":"43","author":"Sziva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1002\/cbin.11495","article-title":"Autophagy participates in the protection role of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in acute myocardial infarction via PI3K\/AKT\/mTOR pathway","volume":"45","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Biol. Int."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s13105-020-00778-6","article-title":"Concurrent vitamin D supplementation and exercise training improve cardiac fibrosis via TGF-\u03b2\/Smad signaling in myocardial infarction model of rats","volume":"77","author":"Mehdipoor","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, S., Wang, C., Ruan, C., Chen, M., Cao, R., Sheng, L., Chang, N., Xu, T., Zhao, P., and Liu, X. (2022). Novel Insights into the Cardioprotective Effects of Calcitriol in Myocardial Infarction. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11101676"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e075230","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2023-075230","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation and major cardiovascular events: D-Health randomised controlled trial","volume":"381","author":"Thompson","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(21)00345-4","article-title":"The D-Health Trial: A randomised controlled trial of the effect of vitamin D on mortality","volume":"10","author":"Neale","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100333","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conctc.2019.100333","article-title":"A randomized placebo-controlled trial of vitamin D supplementation for reduction of mortality and cancer: Statistical analysis plan for the D-Health Trial","volume":"14","author":"Waterhouse","year":"2019","journal-title":"Contemp. Clin. Trials Commun."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1007\/s40620-021-01104-z","article-title":"Calcifediol supplementation in adults on hemodialysis: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"35","author":"Morrone","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2022.11.001","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation and adverse skeletal and non-skeletal outcomes in individuals at increased cardiovascular risk: Results from the International Polycap Study (TIPS)-3 randomized controlled trial","volume":"33","author":"Joseph","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarhan, N., Essam Abou Warda, A., Alsahali, S., and Alanazi, A.S. (2023). Impact of Vitamin D Supplementation on the Clinical Outcomes and Epigenetic Markers in Patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16020262"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacadv.2023.100643","article-title":"Effects of Vitamin K2 and D Supplementation on Coronary Artery Disease in Men: A RCT","volume":"2","author":"Hasific","year":"2023","journal-title":"JACC Adv."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1177\/1074248420920495","article-title":"Vitamin D Treatment Attenuates Heart Apoptosis After Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial","volume":"25","author":"Tasdighi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1007\/s11748-024-02020-2","article-title":"Effect of preoperative vitamin D on postoperative atrial fibrillation incidence after coronary artery bypass grafting","volume":"72","author":"Alirezaei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Gen. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2095","DOI":"10.34067\/KID.0006472022","article-title":"Effects of Vitamin D(3) Supplementation on Cardiovascular and Cancer Outcomes by eGFR in VITAL","volume":"3","author":"Limonte","year":"2022","journal-title":"Kidney360"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100037","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnha.2024.100037","article-title":"Effects of vitamin D, omega-3 and a simple strength exercise programme in cardiovascular disease prevention: The DO-HEALTH randomized controlled trial","volume":"28","author":"Gaengler","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Health Aging"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1855","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.16909","article-title":"Effect of Vitamin D Supplementation, Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation, or a Strength-Training Exercise Program on Clinical Outcomes in Older Adults: The DO-HEALTH Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"324","author":"Vellas","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sadeghi, M., Momeni, A., Mirsaeidi, F.S., Jamalian, M., Amirpour, A., Hadavi, M.M., Tavassoli, P., Taheri, M., Azizi, E., and Rouhani, S. (2024). The Effect of Vitamin D Deficiency Treatment on Lipid Profile and C-reactive Protein in Patients with Ischemic Heart Disease: Double-blind Randomized Clinical Trial. Adv. Biomed. Res., 13.","DOI":"10.4103\/abr.abr_380_23"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johny, E., Jala, A., Nath, B., Alam, M.J., Kuladhipati, I., Das, R., Borkar, R.M., and Adela, R. (2022). Vitamin D Supplementation Modulates Platelet-Mediated Inflammation in Subjects With Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.869591"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Imanparast, F., Mashayekhi, F.J., Kamankesh, F., Rafiei, F., Mohaghegh, P., and Alimoradian, A. (2020). Improving the endothelial dysfunction in type 2 diabetes with chromium and vitamin D(3) byreducing homocysteine and oxidative stress: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol., 62.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2020.126639"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-020-01678-x","article-title":"Vitamin D supplementation: Upper limit for safety revisited?","volume":"33","author":"Rizzoli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-021-00593-z","article-title":"The health effects of vitamin D supplementation: Evidence from human studies","volume":"18","author":"Bouillon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruiz-Garcia, A., Pallares-Carratala, V., Turegano-Yedro, M., Torres, F., Sapena, V., Martin-Gorgojo, A., and Martin-Moreno, J.M. (2023). Vitamin D Supplementation and Its Impact on Mortality and Cardiovascular Outcomes: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 80 Randomized Clinical Trials. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15081810"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.119.044645","article-title":"Supplementation With Vitamin D and Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Incidence of Heart Failure Hospitalization: VITAL-Heart Failure","volume":"141","author":"Djousse","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.1489","article-title":"Effect of Marine Omega-3 Fatty Acid and Vitamin D Supplementation on Incident Atrial Fibrillation: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"325","author":"Albert","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tikkanen, J.T., Soliman, E.Z., Pester, J., Danik, J.S., Gomelskya, N., Copeland, T., Lee, I.M., Buring, J.E., Manson, J.E., and Cook, N.R. (2023). A randomized clinical trial of omega-3 fatty acid and vitamin D supplementation on electrocardiographic risk profiles. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-38344-x"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/11\/5002\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:38:38Z","timestamp":1760031518000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/11\/5002"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,22]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26115002"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26115002","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,22]]}}}