{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T06:05:08Z","timestamp":1785564308588,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]],"date-time":"2025-06-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749513600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII)","award":["PI22\/01588"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI22\/01588"]}]},{"name":"Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII)","award":["PID2022-137331OB-C32"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2022-137331OB-C32"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PI22\/01588"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI22\/01588"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2022-137331OB-C32"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2022-137331OB-C32"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Retinal dysfunction is emerging as a potential early marker of neurodegenerative diseases. Within the retina, the dopaminergic circuit, comprising dopaminergic amacrine cells, dopamine synthesis and turnover, and dopamine receptor signalling, is essential for visual processing, particularly colour contrast perception. Disruption of this circuit may underline early retinal alterations observed in Huntington\u2019s disease (HD) and Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD). In this study, we systematically analysed retinal dopaminergic dysfunction in murine models of HD (genetic origin) and AD (sporadic), across different disease stages. We assessed dopamine levels, turnover, tyrosine hydroxylase expression, D1 and D2 receptor gene expression, and neurotransmitter balance. HD mice showed early and marked alterations: reduced dopamine content, decreased tyrosine hydroxylase, increased turnover, and downregulation of D1 receptor expression\u2014all preceding motor symptoms and detectable brain pathology. In contrast, AD mice showed only mild changes at later stages; however, clinical evidence suggests that similar dysfunction may occur earlier in human AD. These findings position retinal dopaminergic disruption as a potential early biomarker in HD and possibly in AD. While the current study relies on invasive techniques in animal models, it lays the groundwork for non-invasive retinal assessments, such as electroretinography or optical coherence tomography, as promising tools for early diagnosis and disease monitoring in neurodegeneration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26125532","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]],"date-time":"2025-06-10T05:11:49Z","timestamp":1749532309000},"page":"5532","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Retinal Dopaminergic Circuit as a Biomarker for Huntington\u2019s and Alzheimer\u2019s Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Pedro","family":"Blanco-Hern\u00e1n","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Ram\u00f3n y Cajal de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lorena","family":"Aguado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Ram\u00f3n y Cajal de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda Jos\u00e9","family":"Asensio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Ram\u00f3n y Cajal de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Servicio de Neurobiolog\u00eda-Investigaci\u00f3n, Hospital Ram\u00f3n y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"G\u00f3mez-Soria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Ram\u00f3n y Cajal de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Servicio de Neurobiolog\u00eda-Investigaci\u00f3n, Hospital Ram\u00f3n y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9856-6616","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"de la Villa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Ram\u00f3n y Cajal de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Systems Biology, Universidad de Alcal\u00e1 (UAH), 28871 Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda Jos\u00e9","family":"Casarejos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Ram\u00f3n y Cajal de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Servicio de Neurobiolog\u00eda-Investigaci\u00f3n, Hospital Ram\u00f3n y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alicia","family":"Mansilla","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Ram\u00f3n y Cajal de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Systems Biology, Universidad de Alcal\u00e1 (UAH), 28871 Alcal\u00e1 de Henares, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Prince, M., Bryce, D.R., and Ferri, D.C. 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