{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T22:15:02Z","timestamp":1793052902269,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":184,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750118400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Science Fund: Sofia, Bulgaria","award":["K\u03a0-06-H73\/5-05.12.2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K\u03a0-06-H73\/5-05.12.2023"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The main source of microorganisms in the blood is the intestinal and oral microflora through the route of atopobiosis. It is clear that the blood microbiome undergoes significant changes in response to various pathological conditions within the human body. In this review, we summarized data from studies of the human blood microbiome in diseases of the nervous system and cardiovascular, respiratory, liver, kidney, and metabolite disorders. Links between the blood microbiome and the above mentioned diseases are demonstrated. In support of this understanding, it is evident that analogous alterations in microbiome composition occur across various disease categories; however, the microbial signatures associated with the blood microbiome exhibit specificity. For instance, an elevated abundancy of Proteobacteria has been identified in cardiovascular, renal, and metabolic disorders. Conversely, while Firmicutes are found to be abundant in renal and metabolic conditions, their levels are diminished in cardiovascular diseases. Additionally, patients suffering from respiratory and liver ailments typically show a heightened presence of Bacteroidetes; notably, Flavobacterium is prevalent in respiratory diseases, whereas Enterobacteriaceae is associated with liver diseases. Hence, the human blood microbiome could be considered as a potential biomarker in certain diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26125807","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]],"date-time":"2025-06-17T10:45:26Z","timestamp":1750157126000},"page":"5807","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Pathological Alterations in Human Blood Microbiome\u2014An Updated Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1845-2753","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stela","family":"Dragomanova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Varna, 84 A Tsar Osvoboditel Blvd., 9002 Varna, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7764-3640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Reni","family":"Kalfin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Effects of Natural and Synthetic Substances, Institute of Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Str. 23, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria"},{"name":"Department of Healthcare, Faculty of Public Health, Healthcare and Sport, South-West University, 66 Ivan Mihailov St., 2700 Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lyubka","family":"Tancheva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Effects of Natural and Synthetic Substances, Institute of Neurobiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Str. 23, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0034-835X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sidharth","family":"Mehan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga 142001, Punjab, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4817-650X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dana","family":"Stanciu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, \u201cIuliu Ha\u021bieganu\u201d University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400337 Cluj-Napoca, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefan","family":"Panaiotov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Centre of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Yanko Sakazov Blvd. 26, 1504 Sofia, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-4143-1_2","article-title":"Bacterial translocation from the gastrointestinal tract","volume":"473","author":"Berg","year":"1999","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1468","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.2011.07905.x","article-title":"Fusobacterium nucleatum adhesin FadA binds vascular endothelial cadherin and alters endothelial integrity","volume":"82","author":"Fardini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"77","article-title":"Resident microbial flora in human erythrocytes","volume":"2","author":"Kalfin","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Cult. Collect."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.39.5.1956-1959.2001","article-title":"Does blood of healthy subjects contain bacterial ribosomal DNA?","volume":"39","author":"Nikkari","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4771","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.40.12.4771-4775.2002","article-title":"Are there naturally occurring pleomorphic bacteria in the blood of healthy humans?","volume":"40","author":"McLaughlin","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Jensen, G.S. (1999, January 18\u201319). Pleomorphic Microbes in Health and Disease. Proceedings of the First Annual Symposium, Montreal, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Jensen, G.S. (2000, January 19\u201320). Pleomorphic Microbes in Health and Disease. Proceedings of the Second Annual Symposium, Ashland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castillo, D.J., Rifkin, R.F., Cowan, D.A., and Potgieter, M. (2019). The healthy human blood microbiome: Fact or fiction?. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2019.00148"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2022.03.038","article-title":"Gut microbiome and circulating bacterial DNA (\u201cblood microbiome\u201d) in a mouse model of total parenteral nutrition: Evidence of two distinct separate microbiotic compartments","volume":"49","author":"Lucchinetti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2020.01.013","article-title":"Blood Microbiota and Circulating Microbial Metabolites in Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"31","author":"Velmurugan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sciarra, F., Franceschini, E., Campolo, F., and Venneri, M.A. (2023). The diagnostic potential of the human blood microbiome: Are we dreaming or awake?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241310422"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gouello, A., Henry, L., Chadli, D., Salipante, F., Gibert, J., Boutet-Dubois, A., and Lavigne, J.P. (2024). Evaluation of the Microbiome Identification of Forensically Relevant Biological Fluids: A Pilot Study. Diagnostics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14020187"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, E.J., Sung, J., Kim, H.L., and Kim, H.N. (2022). Whole-genome sequencing reveals age-specific changes in the human blood microbiota. J. Pers. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jpm12060939"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, V., Paul, S., and Dutta, C. (2017). Geography, Ethnicity or Subsistence-Specific Variations in Human Microbiome Composition and Diversity. Front. Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01162"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, K.D., Ogunrinde, E., Wan, Z., Li, C., and Jiang, W. (2024). Racial Disparities in Plasma Cytokine and Microbiome Profiles. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12071453"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"You, Y.A., Yoo, J.Y., Kwon, E.J., and Kim, Y.J. (2019). Blood microbial communities during pregnancy are associated with preterm birth. Front. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.01122"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morrow, J.D., Castaldi, P.J., Chase, R.P., Yun, J.H., Lee, S., Liu, Y.Y., and Hersh, C.P. (2021). Peripheral blood microbial signatures in current and former smokers. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-99238-4"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.4236\/aim.2018.85027","article-title":"Cultural Isolation and Characteristics of the Blood Microbiome of Healthy Individuals","volume":"8","author":"Panaiotov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panaiotov, S., Hodzhev, Y., Tsafarova, B., Tolchkov, V., and Kalfin, R. (2021). Culturable and Non-Culturable Blood Microbiota of Healthy Individuals. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9071464"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsafarova, B., Hodzhev, Y., Yordanov, G., Tolchkov, V., Kalfin, R., and Panaiotov, S. (2023). Morphology of blood microbiota in healthy individuals assessed by light and electron microscopy. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.1091341"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goraya, M.U., Li, R., Mannan, A., Gu, L., Deng, H., and Wang, G. (2022). Human circulating bacteria and dysbiosis in non-infectious diseases. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.932702"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jagare, L., Rozenberga, M., Silamikelis, I., Ansone, L., Elbere, I., Briviba, M., Megnis, K., Konrade, I., Birka, I., and Straume, Z. (2023). Metatranscriptome analysis of blood in healthy individuals and irritable bowel syndrome patients. J. Med. Microbiol., 72.","DOI":"10.1099\/jmm.0.001719"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, H.S., Tan, S.P., Wong, D.M.K., Koo, W.L.Y., Wong, S.H., and Tan, N.S. (2023). The blood microbiome and health: Current evidence, controversies, and challenges. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24065633"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, I., Khan, I., Xie, P., Xiaohui, Y., Lei, S., Song, T., Li, Z., and Xie, X. (2025). Insights into the blood, gut, and oral microbiomes in Chinese patients with myocardial infarction: A case-control study. BMC Microbiol., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-025-03878-9"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-023-01350-w","article-title":"No evidence for a common blood microbiome based on a population study of 9,770 healthy humans","volume":"8","author":"Tan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1138","DOI":"10.1111\/trf.13477","article-title":"Comprehensive description of blood microbiome from healthy donors assessed by 16S targeted meta- genomic sequencing","volume":"56","author":"Valle","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whittle, E., Leonard, M.O., Harrison, R., Gant, T.W., and Tonge, D.P. (2019). Multi-Method Characterization of the Human Circulating Microbiome. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.03266"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"142","article-title":"Blood microbiome of a clinically healthy person\u2014Myth or reality? (Review of literature) (Russian)","volume":"69","author":"Kargaltseva","year":"2024","journal-title":"Klin. Lab. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2022.10.007","article-title":"Female reproduction and the microbiota in mammals: Where are we?","volume":"194","author":"Rebollar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Della Fera, A.N., Warburton, A., Coursey, T.L., Khurana, S., and McBride, A.A. (2021). Persistent Human Papillomavirus Infection. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13020321"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14989","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1211138109","article-title":"Prolonged persistence of measles virus RNA is characteristic of primary infection dynamics","volume":"109","author":"Lin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Mangul, S., Olde Loohuis, L., Ori, A.P., Jospin, G., Koslicki, D., Yang, H.T., and Ophoff, R.A. (2016). Total RNA Sequencing reveals microbial communities in human blood and disease specific effects. bioRxiv."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2015","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.28829","article-title":"Changes in blood microbiota profiles associated with liver fibrosis in obese patients: A pilot analysis","volume":"64","author":"Lelouvier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Traykova, D., Schneider, B., Chojkier, M., and Buck, M. (2017). Blood Microbiome Quantity and the Hyperdynamic Circulation in Decompensated Cirrhotic Patients. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0169310"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1097\/MEG.0000000000001494","article-title":"Characterisation of blood microbiota in patients with liver cirrhosis","volume":"31","author":"Kajihara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2018-316227","article-title":"Circulating microbiome in blood of different circulatory compartments","volume":"68","author":"Schierwagen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amar, J., Lange, C., Payros, G., Garret, C., Chabo, C., Lantieri, O., Courtney, M., Marre, M., Charles, M.A., and Balkau, B. (2013). Blood microbiota dysbiosis is associated with the onset of cardiovascular events in a large general population: The D.E.S.I.R. study. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0054461"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dinakaran, V., Rathinavel, A., Pushpanathan, M., Sivakumar, R., Gunasekaran, P., and Rajendhran, J. (2014). Elevated levels of circulating DNA in cardiovascular disease patients: Metagenomic profiling of microbiome in the circulation. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0105221"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lawrence, G., Midtervoll, I., Samuelsen, S.O., Kristoffersen, A.K., Enersen, M., and H\u00e5heim, L.L. (2022). The blood microbiome and its association to cardiovascular disease mortality: Case-cohort study. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12872-022-02791-7"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.12161018","article-title":"Blood Microbiome Profile in CKD: A Pilot Study","volume":"14","author":"Shah","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.03420319","article-title":"Blood Microbiome in CKD: Should We Care?","volume":"14","author":"Mair","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Merino-Ribas, A., Araujo, R., Pereira, L., Campos, J., Barreiros, L., Segundo, M.A., Silva, N., Costa, C., Quelhas-Santos, J., and Trindade, F. (2022). Vascular Calcification and the Gut and Blood Microbiome in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients on Peritoneal Dialysis: A Pilot Study. Biomolecules, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12070867"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Wang, Q., Zhao, L., Bin, Y., Wang, L., Wang, L., Zhang, K., and Li, Q. (2022). Blood Bacterial 16S rRNA Gene Alterations in Women With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.814520"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22842","DOI":"10.1002\/jcla.22842","article-title":"Association between blood microbiome and type 2 diabetes mellitus: A nested case-control study","volume":"33","author":"Qiu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Lab. Anal."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1038\/s41388-024-02974-w","article-title":"Robustness of cancer microbiome signals over a broad range of methodological variation","volume":"43","author":"McDonald","year":"2024","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1976953","DOI":"10.1080\/2162402X.2021.1976953","article-title":"Blood microbiota diversity determines response of advanced colorectal cancer to chemotherapy combined with adoptive T cell immunotherapy","volume":"10","author":"Yang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oncoimmunology"},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"17","article-title":"Eubiotic vs. dysbiotic human blood microbiota: The phenomenon of cell wall deficiency and disease-trigger potential of bacterial and fungal L-forms","volume":"29","author":"Markova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Discov. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.2174\/187153011797881210","article-title":"The impact of bacterial lipopolysaccharides on the endothelial system: Pathological consequences and therapeutic countermeasures","volume":"11","author":"Magrone","year":"2011","journal-title":"Endocr. Metab. Immune Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"203","article-title":"The blood as a diagnostic tool in chronic illness with obscure microbial involvement: A critical review","volume":"12","author":"Jensen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Complement. Alt. Med."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, Z., Alekseyenko, A.V., Ogunrinde, E., Li, M., Li, Q.Z., Huang, L., and Jiang, W. (2021). Rigorous plasma microbiome analysis method enables disease association discovery in clinic. Front. Microbiol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.613268"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walsh, P., Andrade, B.G., Palu, C., Wu, J., Lawlor, B., Kelly, B., Hemmje, M., and Kramer, M. (2018, January 3\u20136). ImmunoAdept\u2014Bringing blood microbiome profiling to the clinical practice. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine (BIBM), Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/BIBM.2018.8621354"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2343","DOI":"10.2337\/dc13-2817","article-title":"Gut dysbiosis and detection of \u201clive gut bacteria\u201d in blood of Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes","volume":"37","author":"Sato","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-022-00670-1","article-title":"Genome-microbiome interplay provides insight into the determinants of the human blood metabolome","volume":"4","author":"Diener","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliphant, K., and Allen-Vercoe, E. (2019). Macronutrient metabolism by the human gut microbiome: Major fermentation by-products and their impact on host health. Microbiome, 7.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-019-0704-8"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.17816\/pmj40194-107","article-title":"Influence of intestinal microbiota on pathogenesis of cardiovacular diseases","volume":"40","author":"Stepanov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Perm. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1011","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-019-01022-9","article-title":"Gut microbiome and microbial metabolites: A new system affecting metabolic disorders","volume":"42","author":"Federici","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanes, C., Bittinger, K., Gao, Y., Friedman, E.S., Nessel, L., Paladhi, U.R., Chau, L., Panfen, E., Fischbach, M.A., and Braun, J. (2021). Role of dietary fiber in the recovery of the human gut microbiome and its metabolome. Cell Host Microbe, 29.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2020.12.012"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, Z.Z., Chen, G., Hong, Q., Huang, S., Smith, H.M., Shah, R.D., Scholz, M., and Ferguson, J.F. (2019). Multi-Omic Analysis of the Microbiome and Metabolome in Healthy Subjects Reveals Microbiome-Dependent Relationships Between Diet and Metabolites. Front. Genet., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2019.00454"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3439","DOI":"10.1007\/s00204-017-1949-2","article-title":"Gut microbiome-related metabolic changes in plasma of antibiotic-treated rats","volume":"91","author":"Behr","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lokhov, P.G., Balashova, E.E., Maslov, D.L., Trifonova, O.P., Lisitsa, A.V., Markova, Y.M., Stetsenko, V.V., Polyanina, A.S., Sheveleva, S.A., and Sharafetdinov, K.K. (2023). Linking Clinical Blood Metabogram and Gut Microbiota. Metabolites, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo13101095"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du, X., Li, Q., Tang, Z., Yan, L., Zhang, L., Zheng, Q., Zeng, X., Chen, G., Yue, H., and Li, J. (2022). Alterations of the Gut Microbiome and Fecal Metabolome in Colorectal Cancer: Implication of Intestinal Metabolism for Tumorigenesis. Front. Physiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2022.854545"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2019.05.063","article-title":"The path toward using microbial metabolites as therapies","volume":"44","author":"Descamps","year":"2019","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s11154-019-09533-9","article-title":"Gut microbiome and cardiometabolic risk","volume":"20","author":"Kappel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Endocr. Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dld.2023.06.017","article-title":"Impacts of gut microbiota alteration on age-related chronic liver diseases","volume":"56","author":"Adhikary","year":"2024","journal-title":"Dig. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1111\/joim.12892","article-title":"Indoles: Metabolites produced by intestinal bacteria capable of controlling liver disease manifestation","volume":"286","author":"Hendrikx","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, B.Y., Li, Y.L., Lin, W.Z., Bi, C., Du, L.J., Liu, Y., Zhou, L.J., Liu, T., Xu, S., and Zhang, J. (2023). Integrated Omic Analysis of Human Plasma Metabolites and Microbiota in a Hypertension Cohort. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15092074"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2155018","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2022.2155018","article-title":"Alterations in gut microbiome and metabolomics in chronic hepatitis B infection-associated liver disease and their impact on peripheral immune response","volume":"15","author":"Shen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2547","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.15724","article-title":"Integrating 16S RRNA gene sequencing and metabolomics to evaluate the association between gut microbiota and serum metabolites in patients with myositis","volume":"133","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bibi, A., Zhang, F., Shen, J., Din, A.U., and Xu, Y. (2025). Behavioral alterations in antibiotic-treated mice associated with gut microbiota dysbiosis: Insights from 16S rRNA and metabolomics. Front. Neurosci., 19.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2025.1478304"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1097\/SLA.0000000000006385","article-title":"Persistence and Sexual Dimorphism of Gut Dysbiosis and Pathobiome after Sepsis and Trauma","volume":"280","author":"Munley","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Surg."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suparan, K., Sriwichaiin, S., Chattipakorn, N., and Chattipakorn, S.C. (2022). Human blood bacteriome: Eubiotic and dysbiotic states in health and diseases. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11132015"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"5","article-title":"The Role of Blood Microbiome and Microbial Product Translocation in Disease Pathogenesis","volume":"2","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Case Stud."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demirci, M., Saribas, A.S., Siadat, S.D., and Kocazeybek, B.S. (2023). Blood microbiota in health and disease. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2023.1187247"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sumida, K., Han, Z., Chiu, C.-Y., Mims, T.S., Bajwa, A., Demmer, R.T., Datta, S., Kovesdy, C.P., and Pierre, J.F. (2022). Circulating Microbiota in Cardiometabolic Disease. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.892232"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.18705\/1607-419X-2023-29-5-442-455","article-title":"Role of intestinal microbiota in the development of cardiovascular disease: Focus on metabolites and markers of increased intestinal permeability and inflammation of the intestinal wall","volume":"29","author":"Kolesova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arter. Gipertenz. Arter. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Dable-Tupas, G., Karunakaran, R., Lim, P.P.C., and Otero, M.C.B. (2025). Chapter 11\u2014Human Microbiome and Infectious Diseases, Human Microbiome Drug Targets; Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2017.11.004","article-title":"Lupus: The microbiome angle","volume":"223","author":"Yacoub","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1080\/08830185.2018.1429428","article-title":"Microbiota regulate the development and function of the immune cells","volume":"37","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.17816\/KMJ633598","article-title":"Intestinal microbiota as a fundamental basis for homeostasis, general pathology and aging","volume":"105","author":"Sozinov","year":"2024","journal-title":"Kazan Med. J."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1134\/S0362119724700750","article-title":"Microbiota-Associated Diseases as an Endotoxin-Initiated Pathology or Intestinal Factor in the Induction of Systemic Inflammation and Progression of Aging","volume":"50","author":"Morozov","year":"2024","journal-title":"Hum. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12538","article-title":"Microbiota and host immune responses: A love-hate relationship","volume":"147","author":"Tomkovich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ch\u00e9nard, T., Pr\u00e9vost, K., Dub\u00e9, J., and Mass\u00e9, E. (2020). Immune System Modulations by Products of the Gut Microbiota. Vaccines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8030461"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Onisiforou, A., and Spyrou, G.M. (2022). Immunomodulatory effects of microbiota-derived metabolites at the crossroad of neurodegenerative diseases and viral infection: Network-based bioinformatics insights. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.843128"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cuesta, C.M., Guerri, C., Ure\u00f1a, J., and Pascual, M. (2021). Role of microbiota-derived extracellular vesicles in gut-brain communication. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22084235"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaau3333","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aau3333","article-title":"Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer\u2019s disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors","volume":"5","author":"Dominy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2020.01.004","article-title":"Comparison of serum microbiome composition in bipolar and major depressive disorders","volume":"123","author":"Rhee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rhee, S.J., Kim, H., Lee, Y., Lee, H.J., Park, C.H.K., Yang, J., Kim, Y.-K., and Ahn, Y.M. (2021). The association between serum microbial DNA composition and symptoms of depression and anxiety in mood disorders. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-93112-z"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.ampbs.2019.03.001","article-title":"Hydrogenases and H2 metabolism in sulfate-reducing bacteria of the Desulfovibrio genus","volume":"74","author":"Baffert","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Microb. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2019.05.011","article-title":"Anxiety disorders in childhood are associated with youth IL-6 levels: A mediation study including metabolic stress and childhood traumatic events","volume":"115","author":"Bortoluzzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E358","DOI":"10.1503\/jpn.200159","article-title":"Blood microbiota and metabolomic signature of major depression before and after antidepressant treatment: A prospective case\u2013control study","volume":"46","author":"Ciocan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Psychiatry Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taylor, B.C., Sheikh Andalibi, M., Wandro, S., Weldon, K.C., Sepich-Poore, G.D., Carpenter, C.S., Fraraccio, S., Franklin, D., Ludicello, J.E., and Letendre, S. (2023). Signatures of HIV and major depressive disorder in the plasma microbiome. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11041022"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-018-0107-9","article-title":"Transcriptome analysis in whole blood reveals increased microbial diversity in schizophrenia","volume":"8","author":"Mangul","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"646","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.13593","article-title":"Microbiome analysis of circulating bacterial extracellular vesicles in obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"77","author":"Kang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_94","first-page":"600","article-title":"Evaluation of the structure of the human microbiome in multiple sclerosis by the concentrations of microbial markers in the blood","volume":"67","author":"Sadekov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Klin. Lab. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, Y., Li, X., Wang, Z., and Yu, B. (2021). Gut microbiota dysbiosis in human hypertension: A systematic review of observational studies. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2021.650227"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2013.07.232","article-title":"Contrasting circulating microbiome in cardiovascular disease patients and healthy individuals","volume":"168","author":"Rajendhran","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4592","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1011383107","article-title":"Human oral, gut, and plaque microbiota in patients with atherosclerosis","volume":"108","author":"Koren","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"822","article-title":"Blood microbiome of patients with atherosclerosis","volume":"104","author":"Sharifullina","year":"2023","journal-title":"Atero-Scleroz"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Velmurugan, G., Ramprasath, T., and Mithieux, G. (2022). Human microbiota: A key player in the etiology and pathophysiology of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Front. Cardiovasc. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.1081722"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1093\/ajh\/hpab084","article-title":"Associations between peripheral blood microbiome and the risk of hypertension","volume":"34","author":"Jing","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, I., Khan, I., Usman, M., Zhou, J., Zhang, X., Xie, P., Li, Z., and An, L. (2022). Analysis of the blood bacterial composition of patients with acute coronary syndrome and chronic coronary syndrome. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2022.943808"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, I., Khan, I., Kakakhel, M.A., Zhang, X., Mao, T., Ali, I., Yu, F., Zhou, J., Li, Z., and An, L. (2022). Comparison of microbial populations in the blood of patients with myocardial infarction and healthy individuals. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.845038"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117843","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2024.117843","article-title":"Potential biomarkers of acute myocardial infarction based on the composition of the blood microbiome","volume":"556","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Desbois, A.C., Ciocan, D., Saadoun, D., Perlemuter, G., and Cacoub, P. (2021). Specific microbiome profile in Takayasu\u2019s arteritis and giant cell arteritis. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-84725-5"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2679","DOI":"10.1042\/BCJ20200426","article-title":"Gut microbiome: A promising target for management of respiratory diseases","volume":"477","author":"Trivedi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"2340670","article-title":"The gut microbiota and respiratory diseases: New evidence","volume":"2020","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2022.12.810","article-title":"The gut microbiome is a significant risk factor for future chronic lung disease","volume":"151","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-024-01048-8","article-title":"The gut\u2013airway microbiome axis in health and respiratory diseases","volume":"22","author":"Lynch","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(18)30510-1","article-title":"Functional effects of the microbiota in chronic respiratory disease","volume":"7","author":"Budden","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santacroce, L., Charitos, I.A., Ballini, A., Inchingolo, F., Luperto, P., De Nitto, E., and Topi, S. (2020). The human respiratory system and its microbiome at a glimpse. Biology, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology9100318"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100065","DOI":"10.1016\/j.crimmu.2023.100065","article-title":"Lung microbiome and origins of respiratory diseases","volume":"4","author":"Faintuch","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-023-01722-y","article-title":"Lung microbiome: New insights into the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases","volume":"9","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morrow, J.D., Castaldi, P.J., Chase, R.P., Yun, J.H., Lee, S., Liu, Y.Y., Hersh, C.P., and COPD Gene Investigators (2020). Peripheral blood microbial signatures in COPD. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.05.31.126367"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, J.-H., Choi, J.-P., Yang, J., Won, H.-K., Park, C.S., Song, W.-J., Kwon, H.-S., Kim, T.-B., Kim, Y.-K., and Park, H.-S. (2020). Metagenome analysis using serum extracellular vesicles identified distinct microbiota in asthmatics. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-72242-w"},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"00667","article-title":"Biological effects of pulmonary, blood, and gut microbiome alterations in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome","volume":"11","author":"Barbeta","year":"2024","journal-title":"ERJ Open Res."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santiago, A., Pozuelo, M., Poca, M., Gely, C., Nieto, J.C., Torras, X., and Guarner, C. (2016). Alteration of the serum microbiome composition in cirrhotic patients with ascites. Sci. Rep., 6.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep25001"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2024.102524","article-title":"Altered blood microbiome in patients with HCV-related Child-Pugh class B cirrhosis","volume":"17","author":"Rava","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Infect. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Wang, C., Tang, C., Zhao, X., He, Q., and Li, J. (2018). Identification and characterization of blood and neutrophil-associated microbiomes in patients with severe acute pancreatitis using next-generation sequencing. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2018.00005"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.29623","article-title":"The circulating microbiome signature and inferred functional metagenomics in alcoholic hepatitis","volume":"67","author":"Puri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2029674","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2022.2029674","article-title":"Circulating microbiome in patients with portal hypertension","volume":"14","author":"Gedgaudas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e21662","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e21662","article-title":"Exploring the diversity of blood microbiome during liver diseases: Unveiling novel diagnostic and therapeutic avenues","volume":"9","author":"Vasudevan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9845","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-024-03242-0","article-title":"The potential liver injury induced by metronidazole-provoked disturbance of gut microbiota: Modulatory effect of turmeric supplementation","volume":"397","author":"Ali","year":"2024","journal-title":"Naunyn-Schmiedeberg\u2019s Arch. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okumura, T., Horiba, K., Kamei, H., Takeuchi, S., Suzuki, T., Torii, Y., and Ito, Y. (2021). Temporal dynamics of the plasma microbiome in recipients at early post-liver transplantation: A retrospective study. BMC Microbiol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-021-02154-w"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hpb.2024.04.023","article-title":"The blood microbiome and its impact on hepatic failure after liver surgery","volume":"26","author":"Santol","year":"2024","journal-title":"HPB"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2013080905","article-title":"The gut microbiome, kidney disease, and targeted interventions","volume":"25","author":"Ramezani","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.aambs.2016.06.002","article-title":"The role of the gut microbiome on chronic kidney disease","volume":"96","author":"Pestana","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-016-3392-7","article-title":"Gut microbiome and kidney disease: A bidirectional relationship","volume":"32","author":"Shatat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2016.04.007","article-title":"Gut microbiome in chronic kidney disease: Challenges and opportunities","volume":"179","author":"Nallu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1007\/s11906-017-0727-0","article-title":"Gut microbiome in chronic kidney disease","volume":"19","author":"Armani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Hypertens. Rep."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F1211","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00298.2018","article-title":"Chronic kidney disease and the gut microbiome","volume":"316","author":"Hobby","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Ren. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-018-1756-4","article-title":"Microbiome\u2013metabolome reveals the contribution of gut\u2013kidney axis on kidney disease","volume":"17","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2001936","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202001936","article-title":"Alterations of the human gut microbiome in chronic kidney disease","volume":"7","author":"Ren","year":"2020","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, F., Xu, X., Chao, L., Chen, K., Shao, A., Sun, D., Hong, Y., Hu, R., Jiang, P., and Zhang, N. (2021). Alteration of the gut microbiome in chronic kidney disease patients and its association with serum free immunoglobulin light chains. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.609700"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfaa122","article-title":"Metagenomic profiling of gut microbiome in early chronic kidney disease","volume":"36","author":"Sato","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tourountzis, T., Lioulios, G., Fylaktou, A., Moysidou, E., Papagianni, A., and Stangou, M. (2022). Microbiome in chronic kidney disease. Life, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/life12101513"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.03490708","article-title":"Circulating bacterial-derived DNA fragments and markers of inflammation in chronic hemodialysis patients","volume":"4","author":"Bossola","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, F., Zhang, N., Wu, Y., Jiang, P., Jiang, T., Wang, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhai, Q., Zou, Y., and Feng, N. (2020). The pelvis urinary microbiome in patients with kidney stones and clinical associations. BMC Microbiol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-01992-4"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerges-Knafl, D., Pichler, P., Zimprich, A., Hotzy, C., Barousch, W., Lang, R.M., Lobmeyr, E., Baumgartner-Parzer, S., Wagner, L., and Winnicki, W. (2020). The urinary microbiome shows different bacterial genera in renal transplant recipients and non-transplant patients at time of acute kidney injury: A pilot study. BMC Nephrol., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12882-020-01773-1"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nefro.2023.08.008","article-title":"The urogenital microbiome in chronic kidney disease patients on peritoneal dialysis","volume":"44","author":"Araujo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nefrologia"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-022-03602-5","article-title":"Salivary microbiome in chronic kidney disease: What is its connection to diabetes, hypertension, and immunity?","volume":"20","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, S., Wu, G., Liu, W., Fan, Y., Song, W., Wu, J., Gao, D., Gu, X., Jing, S., and Shen, Q. (2022). Characteristics of human oral microbiome and its non-invasive diagnostic value in chronic kidney disease. Biosci. Rep., 42.","DOI":"10.1042\/BSR20210694"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2018.02.011","article-title":"The microbiome in chronic kidney disease patients undergoing hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis","volume":"130","author":"Araujo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wehedy, E., Shatat, I.F., and Al Khodor, S. (2022). The human microbiome in chronic kidney disease: A double-edged sword. Front. Med., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2021.790783"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, M., Fang, Y., Zheng, J., Shi, G., Guo, J., Zhang, X., and Zhang, R. (2024). Role of symbiotic microbiota dysbiosis in the progression of chronic kidney disease accompanied with vascular calcification. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1306125"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kiryluk, K., Li, Y., Sanna-Cherchi, S., Rohanizadegan, M., Suzuki, H., Eitner, F., Snyder, H.J., Choi, M., Hou, P., and Scolari, F. (2012). Geographic differences in genetic susceptibility to IgA nephropathy: GWAS replication study and geospatial risk analysis. PLoS Genet., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1002765"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.34067\/KID.0000132021","article-title":"The gut and blood microbiome in IgA nephropathy and healthy controls","volume":"2","author":"Shah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Kidney360"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y., Ni, X., Chen, Q., Qu, Y., Chen, K., Zhu, G., Zhang, M., Xu, N., Bai, X., and Wang, J. (2025). Predicting diabetic kidney disease with serum metabolomics and gut microbiota. Sci. Rep., 15.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-91281-9"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.4103\/ijn.ijn_168_22","article-title":"Blood, gut, and oral microbiome in kidney transplant recipients","volume":"33","author":"Sampaio","year":"2023","journal-title":"Indian J. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Proffitt, C., Bidkhori, G., Moyes, D., and Shoaie, S. (2020). Disease, drugs and dysbiosis: Understanding microbial signatures in metabolic disease and medical interventions. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8091381"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zietek, T., and Rath, E. (2016). Inflammation meets metabolic disease: Gut feeling mediated by GLP-1. Front. Immunol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2016.00154"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, Z., Zhang, L., Yang, L., and Chu, H. (2022). The critical role of gut microbiota in obesity. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.1025706"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-01183-8","article-title":"Microbiome Connections with Host Metabolism and Habitual Diet from 1,098 Deeply Phenotyped Individuals","volume":"27","author":"Asnicar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.29296\/25877313-2022-02-06","article-title":"Effect of Metabolic Type of Obesity on Blood Microbiome","volume":"25","author":"Shestopalov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Probl. Biol. Med. Pharm. Chem."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1186\/s13073-021-00919-6","article-title":"Circulating Bacterial Signature Is Linked to Metabolic Disease and Shifts with Metabolic Alleviation after Bariatric Surgery","volume":"13","author":"Chakaroun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1017\/S0007114520000380","article-title":"Microbial Dysbiosis-Induced Obesity: Role of Gut Microbiota in Homoeostasis of Energy Metabolism","volume":"123","author":"Amabebe","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5434","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-48935-5","article-title":"Obesity-Associated Microbiomes Instigate Visceral Adipose Tissue in Fl Ammation by Recruitment of Distinct Neutrophils","volume":"15","author":"Shantaram","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1186\/s12263-021-00703-6","article-title":"Gut Microbiota in Patients with Obesity and Metabolic Disorders \u2014A Systematic Review","volume":"17","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genes. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2169","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2007.03.059","article-title":"Obesity, Inflammation, and Insulin Resistance","volume":"132","author":"Shoelson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1134\/S0022093022060229","article-title":"Relationship between Blood Microbiome and Neurotrophin Levels in Different Metabolic Types of Obesity","volume":"58","author":"Kolesnikova","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Evol. Biochem. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.3233\/HAB-210450","article-title":"Blood Microbiota Composition in Iranian Pre-Diabetic and Type 2 Diabetic Patients","volume":"29","author":"Ghaemi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Antibodies"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-017-3143-0","article-title":"Gut Microbiome Production of Short-Chain Fatty Acids and Obesity in Children","volume":"37","author":"Murugesan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scheithauer, T.P.M., Rampanelli, E., Nieuwdorp, M., Vallance, B.A., Verchere, C.B., van Raalte, D.H., and Herrema, H. (2020). Gut Microbiota as a Trigger for Metabolic Inflammation in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.571731"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e171","DOI":"10.1002\/mco2.171","article-title":"Gut and Obesity\/Metabolic Disease: Focus on Microbiota Metabolites","volume":"3","author":"Lin","year":"2022","journal-title":"MedComm"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goraya, M.U., Li, R., Gu, L., Deng, H., and Wang, G. (2023). Blood Stream Microbiota Dysbiosis Establishing New Research Standards in Cardio-Metabolic Diseases, A Meta-Analysis Study. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11030777"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3055","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-011-2329-8","article-title":"Involvement of Tissue Bacteria in the Onset of Diabetes in Humans: Evidence for a Concept","volume":"54","author":"Amar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1796","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2019-320118","article-title":"Adipose Tissue Derived Bacteria Are Associated with Inflammation in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"69","author":"Massier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110252","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2024.110252","article-title":"The Profile of Blood Microbiome in New-Onset Type 1 Diabetes Children","volume":"27","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2023.09.042","article-title":"Gluten-Related Disorders From Bench to Bedside","volume":"22","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saviano, A., Petruzziello, C., Brigida, M., Morabito Loprete, M.R., Savioli, G., Migneco, A., and Ojetti, V. (2023). Gut Microbiota Alteration and Its Modulation with Probiotics in Celiac Disease. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11102638"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pop.2017.07.011","article-title":"Celiac Disease and Gluten Sensitivity","volume":"44","author":"DeGeorge","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prim. Care-Clin. Off. Pract."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stanciu, D., Staykov, H., Dragomanova, S., Tancheva, L., Pop, R.S., Ielciu, I., and Crisan, G. (2024). Gluten Unraveled: Latest Insights on Terminology, Diagnosis, Pathophysiology, Dietary Strategies, and Intestinal Microbiota Modulations\u2014A Decade in Review. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16213636"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valitutti, F., Cucchiara, S., and Fasano, A. (2019). Celiac Disease and the Microbiome. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11102403"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.3949\/ccjm.83a.15123","article-title":"The Microbiome in Celiac Disease: Beyond Diet-Genetic Interactions","volume":"83","author":"Scher","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cleve. Clin. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serena, G., Davies, C., Cetinbas, M., Sadreyev, R.I., and Fasano, A. (2019). Analysis of Blood and Fecal Microbiome Profile in Patients with Celiac Disease. Hum. Microbio. J., 11.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humic.2018.12.001"},{"key":"ref_175","first-page":"100069","article-title":"Characterization of the Blood Microbiota in Children with Celiac Disease","volume":"2","author":"Mehrotra","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Res. Microb. Sci."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berg, G., Rybakova, D., Fischer, D., Cernava, T., Verg\u00e8s, M.-C.C., Charles, T., Chen, X., Cocolin, L., Eversole, K., and Corral, G.H. (2020). Microbiome definition re-visited: Old concepts and new challenges. Microbiome, 8.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-020-00875-0"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sender, R., Fuchs, S., and Milo, R. (2016). Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body. PLoS Biol., 14.","DOI":"10.1101\/036103"},{"key":"ref_178","first-page":"10","article-title":"Filterable bodies seen with the Rife microscope","volume":"74","author":"Rife","year":"1931","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_179","first-page":"5","article-title":"The presence of consistently recurring invasive mycobacterial forms in tumor cells","volume":"2","year":"1948","journal-title":"N. Y. Microsc. Soc. Bull."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9681(55)90121-1","article-title":"The isolation of unidentified pleomorphic bacteria from the blood of patients with chronic illness","volume":"2","author":"Carpenter","year":"1955","journal-title":"J. Chronic Dis."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.10.2.320","article-title":"Bacterial persistence and expression of disease","volume":"10","author":"Domingue","year":"1997","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Damgaard, C., Magnussen, K., Enevold, C., Nilsson, M., Tolker-Nielsen, T., Holmstrup, P., and Nielsen, C.H. (2015). Viable bacteria associated with red blood cells and plasma in freshly drawn blood donations. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0120826"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2015.1016682","article-title":"Presence of mycobacterial L-forms in blood: Challenge of BCG vaccination","volume":"11","author":"Markova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccin. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-016-2805-7","article-title":"Comprehensive detection and identification of bacterial DNA in the blood of patients with sepsis and healthy volunteers using next-generation sequencing method\u2014The observation of DNAemia","volume":"36","author":"Gosiewski","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/12\/5807\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:53:44Z","timestamp":1760032424000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/12\/5807"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]]},"references-count":184,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26125807"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26125807","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,17]]}}}