{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T15:28:07Z","timestamp":1792510087762,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":235,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1750291200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) remains one of the most effective interventions for treatment-resistant psychiatric disorders, particularly major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. Despite extensive clinical and preclinical investigations, the precise neurobiological mechanisms underlying ECT\u2019s therapeutic effects are not fully understood. This review explores the molecular and cellular pathways involved in ECT, emphasizing its impact on neurotrophic signaling, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and neuroplasticity. Evidence suggests that ECT modulates brain-derived neurotrophic factor and other neurotrophic factors, promoting synaptic plasticity and neuronal survival. Additionally, ECT influences the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal axis, reduces neuroinflammation, and alters neurotransmitter systems, contributing to its antidepressant effects. Recent findings also highlight the role of mitochondrial function and oxidative stress regulation in ECT-induced neural adaptation. By synthesizing current molecular insights, this review provides a comprehensive perspective on the neurobiological mechanisms of ECT, offering potential directions for future research and therapeutic advancements in brain stimulation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26125905","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T09:57:48Z","timestamp":1750327068000},"page":"5905","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Neurobiological Mechanisms of Electroconvulsive Therapy: Molecular Perspectives of Brain Stimulation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Ermin","family":"Fetahovic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication Skills, Ethics, and Psychology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6072-085X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vladimir","family":"Janjic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Communication Skills, Ethics, and Psychology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Psychiatric Clinic, University Clinical Center Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maja","family":"Muric","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Center of Excellence for the Study of Redox Balance in Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorders, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1697-8380","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nemanja","family":"Jovicic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Branimir","family":"Radmanovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Psychiatric Clinic, University Clinical Center Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gvozden","family":"Rosic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8264-2477","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dragica","family":"Selakovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Milos","family":"Filipovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctoral Academic Studies-Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1613-4778","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nemanja","family":"Muric","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"},{"name":"Psychiatric Clinic, University Clinical Center Kragujevac, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-023-00454-1","article-title":"Major depressive disorder","volume":"9","author":"Marx","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. 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