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program of the Country of Lower Austria","award":["DK-W1248"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DK-W1248"]}]},{"name":"Danube Allergy Cluster program of the Country of Lower Austria","award":["COVID001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COVID001"]}]},{"name":"Danube Allergy Cluster program of the Country of Lower Austria","award":["COVID006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COVID006"]}]},{"name":"Danube Allergy Cluster program of the Country of Lower Austria","award":["35721032"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["35721032"]}]},{"name":"Danube Allergy Cluster program of the Country of Lower Austria","award":["DANUBE-ARC"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DANUBE-ARC"]}]},{"name":"Danube Allergy Cluster program of the Country of Lower Austria","award":["DANUBE-ARC 2.0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["DANUBE-ARC 2.0"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Virus-like nanoparticles (VNPs) based on Moloney murine leukemia virus represent a well-established platform for the expression of heterologous molecules such as cytokines, cytokine receptors, peptide MHC (pMHC) and major allergens, but their application for inducing protective anti-viral immunity has remained understudied as of yet. Here, we variably fused the wildtype SARS-CoV-2 spike, its receptor-binding domain (RBD) and nucleocapsid (NC) to the minimal CD16b-GPI anchor acceptor sequence for expression on the surface of VNP. Moreover, a CD16b-GPI-anchored single-chain version of IL-12 was tested for its adjuvanticity. VNPs expressing RBD::CD16b-GPI alone or in combination with IL-12::CD16b-GPI were used to immunize BALB\/c mice intramuscularly and subsequently to investigate virus-specific humoral and cellular immune responses. CD16b-GPI-anchored viral molecules and IL-12-GPI were well-expressed on HEK-293T-producer cells and purified VNPs. After the immunization of mice with VNPs, RBD-specific antibodies were only induced with RBD-expressing VNPs, but not with empty control VNPs or VNPs solely expressing IL-12. Mice immunized with RBD VNPs produced RBD-specific IgM, IgG2a and IgG1 after the first immunization, whereas RBD-specific IgA only appeared after a booster immunization. Protein\/peptide microarray and ELISA analyses confirmed exclusive IgG reactivity with folded but not unfolded RBD and showed no specific IgG reactivity with linear RBD peptides. Notably, booster injections gradually increased long-term IgG antibody avidity as measured by ELISA. Interestingly, the final immunization with RBD\u2013Omicron VNPs mainly enhanced preexisting RBD Wuhan Hu-1-specific antibodies. Furthermore, the induced antibodies significantly neutralized SARS-CoV-2 and specifically enhanced cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) against RBD protein-expressing target cells. In summary, VNPs expressing viral proteins, even in the absence of adjuvants, efficiently induce functional SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies of all three major classes, making this technology very interesting for future vaccine development and boosting strategies with low reactogenicity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26136462","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,7]],"date-time":"2025-07-07T08:58:23Z","timestamp":1751878703000},"page":"6462","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus-like Nanoparticles Pseudo-Typed with SARS-CoV-2 RBD for Vaccination Against COVID-19"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1091-4327","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernhard","family":"Kratzer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6724-8543","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pia","family":"Gattinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter A.","family":"Tauber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mirjam","family":"Schaar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5543-2920","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Al Nasar Ahmed","family":"Sehgal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Armin","family":"Kraus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Doris","family":"Trapin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rudolf","family":"Valenta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"},{"name":"Laboratory for Immunopathology, Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, I. M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), 119991 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"LIFE Improvement by Future Technologies (LIFT) Center, 115478 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"Center for Molecular Allergology, Karl Landsteiner University, 3500 Krems, Austria"},{"name":"Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, 3500 Krems, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Winfried F.","family":"Pickl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"},{"name":"Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, 3500 Krems, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1851","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMe2005477","article-title":"Covid-19\u2013The Search for Effective Therapy","volume":"382","author":"Baden","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. 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