{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T13:36:03Z","timestamp":1791812163580,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]],"date-time":"2025-07-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752624000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite notable advancements in clinical care, cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains a leading global cause of mortality. Encompassing a wide range of heart and blood vessel disorders, CVD requires targeted prevention and treatment strategies to mitigate its public health impact. In recent years, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as crucial mediators of intercellular communication, influencing key processes such as vascular remodeling, inflammation, and immune responses in CVDs. EVs, including exosomes and microvesicles, carry bioactive molecules such as miRNAs, proteins, and lipids that contribute to disease progression. They are released by various cell types, including platelets, erythrocytes, leukocytes, endothelial cells, and cardiomyocytes, each playing distinct roles in cardiovascular homeostasis and pathology. Given their presence in circulating blood and other body fluids, EVs are increasingly recognized as promising non-invasive biomarkers for CVD diagnosis and prognosis. Furthermore, EV-based therapeutic strategies, including engineered EVs for targeted drug delivery, are being explored for treating atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and hypertension. However, challenges remain regarding the standardization of EV isolation and characterization techniques, which are critical for their clinical implementation. This review highlights the diverse roles of EVs in CVD pathophysiology, their potential as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, and emerging therapeutic applications, clearing the way for their integration into cardiovascular precision medicine.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26146817","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]],"date-time":"2025-07-16T12:55:00Z","timestamp":1752670500000},"page":"6817","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Circulating Extracellular Vesicles in Cardiovascular Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Ilenia Pia","family":"Cappucci","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care and Research, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Tremoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care and Research, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4779-4456","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Zavan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Translational Medicine Department, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Letizia","family":"Ferroni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care and Research, 48033 Cotignola, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1002\/ccd.31028","article-title":"A multicenter prospective observational study appraising the effectiveness of the Supera stent after subintimal recanalization of femoro-popliteal artery occlusion: The SUPERSUB II study","volume":"103","author":"Palena","year":"2024","journal-title":"Catheter. Cardiovasc. Interv."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2020","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-024-03114-3","article-title":"Safety of pulsed field ablation in more than 17,000 patients with atrial fibrillation in the MANIFEST-17K study","volume":"30","author":"Ekanem","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mantovani, L., Mikus, E., Tenti, E., Sangiorgi, D., Zannoni, S., Cavallucci, A., Ferroni, L., Cimaglia, P., Tolio, V., and Tremoli, E. (2023). Post-Operative Delirium and Cognitive Dysfunction in Aged Patients Undergoing Cardiac Surgery: A Randomized Comparison between Two Blood Oxygenators. Bioengineering, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering10121429"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e722","DOI":"10.1161\/CIR.0000000000001040","article-title":"Comprehensive Management of Cardiovascular Risk Factors for Adults With Type 2 Diabetes: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association","volume":"145","author":"Joseph","year":"2022","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.020406","article-title":"Shared Risk Factors in Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer","volume":"133","author":"Koene","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Markina, Y.V., Kirichenko, T.V., Tolstik, T.V., Bogatyreva, A.I., Zotova, U.S., Cherednichenko, V.R., Postnov, A.Y., and Markin, A.M. (2023). Target and Cell Therapy for Atherosclerosis and CVD. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241210308"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2013.11.019","article-title":"Comparison of high sensitivity troponin T and I assays in the diagnosis of non-ST elevation acute myocardial infarction in emergency patients with chest pain","volume":"47","author":"Cullen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e37793","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000037793","article-title":"Advances in research on biomarkers associated with acute myocardial infarction: A review","volume":"103","author":"Huang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, Kaptoge, S., Di Angelantonio, E., Lowe, G., Pepys, M.B., Thompson, S.G., Collins, R., and Danesh, J. (2010). C-reactive protein concentration and risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and mortality: An individual participant meta-analysis. Lancet, 375, 132\u2013140.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)61717-7"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e008382","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.120.008382","article-title":"Prospective Evaluation of Clinico-Pathological Predictors of Postoperative Atrial Fibrillation: An Ancillary Study From the OPERA Trial","volume":"13","author":"Corradi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"69","article-title":"How to use D-dimer in acute cardiovascular care","volume":"6","author":"Giannitsis","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Acute Cardiovasc. Care"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0245565","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0245565","article-title":"Incidence and characterization of acute pulmonary embolism in patients with SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia: A multicenter Italian experience","volume":"16","author":"Loffi","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.3325\/cmj.2013.54.480","article-title":"Clinical significance of determining plasma homocysteine: Case-control study on arterial and venous thrombotic patients","volume":"54","author":"Vuckovic","year":"2013","journal-title":"Croat. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1610","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.2346","article-title":"Circulating heart failure biomarkers beyond natriuretic peptides: Review from the Biomarker Study Group of the Heart Failure Association (HFA), European Society of Cardiology (ESC)","volume":"23","author":"Meijers","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132556","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2024.132556","article-title":"Association between peak troponin level and prognosis among patients admitted to intensive cardiovascular care unit","volume":"417","author":"Loutati","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"1447","article-title":"Human cardiac troponin complex. Structure and functions","volume":"78","author":"Katrukha","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.2147\/VHRM.S327661","article-title":"The Main Causes and Mechanisms of Increase in Cardiac Troponin Concentrations Other Than Acute Myocardial Infarction (Part 1): Physical Exertion, Inflammatory Heart Disease, Pulmonary Embolism, Renal Failure, Sepsis","volume":"17","author":"Chauin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vasc. Health Risk Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2015.05.006","article-title":"Cardiac troponin elevation predicts all-cause mortality in patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"191","author":"Pavasini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.59249\/NCST6937","article-title":"Natriuretic Peptides as Biomarkers: Narrative Review and Considerations in Cardiovascular and Respiratory Dysfunctions","volume":"96","author":"Samad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Yale J. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rahbar Kouibaran, F., Sabatino, M., Barozzi, C., and Diemberger, I. (2023). Atrial Natriuretic Peptides as a Bridge between Atrial Fibrillation, Heart Failure, and Amyloidosis of the Atria. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24076470"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1007\/s10741-021-10105-w","article-title":"Biomarkers for the diagnosis and management of heart failure","volume":"27","author":"Castiglione","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heart Fail. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"e224","article-title":"Carotid Atherosclerosis in Predicting Coronary Artery Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"41","author":"Shenouda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chong, S.Y., Lee, C.K., Huang, C., Ou, Y.H., Charles, C.J., Richards, A.M., Neupane, Y.R., Pavon, M.V., Zharkova, O., and Pastorin, G. (2019). Extracellular Vesicles in Cardiovascular Diseases: Alternative Biomarker Sources, Therapeutic Agents, and Drug Delivery Carriers. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20133272"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gardin, C., Ferroni, L., Leo, S., Tremoli, E., and Zavan, B. (2022). Platelet-Derived Exosomes in Atherosclerosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232012546"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chachques, J.C., Gardin, C., Lila, N., Ferroni, L., Migonney, V., Falentin-Daudre, C., Zanotti, F., Trentini, M., Brunello, G., and Rocca, T. (2021). Elastomeric Cardiowrap Scaffolds Functionalized with Mesenchymal Stem Cells-Derived Exosomes Induce a Positive Modulation in the Inflammatory and Wound Healing Response of Mesenchymal Stem Cell and Macrophage. Biomedicines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines9070824"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gardin, C., Ferroni, L., Erdo\u011fan, Y.K., Zanotti, F., De Francesco, F., Trentini, M., Brunello, G., Ercan, B., and Zavan, B. (2021). Nanostructured Modifications of Titanium Surfaces Improve Vascular Regenerative Properties of Exosomes Derived from Mesenchymal Stem Cells: Preliminary In Vitro Results. Nanomaterials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano11123452"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12404","DOI":"10.1002\/jev2.12404","article-title":"Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles (MISEV2023): From basic to advanced approaches","volume":"13","author":"Welsh","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.3109\/09537104.2014.932339","article-title":"CD40L expression in plasma of volunteers following LPS administration: A comparison between assay of CD40L on platelet microvesicles and soluble CD40L","volume":"26","author":"Mobarrez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Platelets"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gendis.2022.03.021","article-title":"The biogenesis and secretion of exosomes and multivesicular bodies (MVBs): Intercellular shuttles and implications in human diseases","volume":"10","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Genes. Dis."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s00467-017-3816-z","article-title":"Exosomes and microvesicles in normal physiology, pathophysiology, and renal diseases","volume":"34","author":"Johansson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leo, S., Tremoli, E., Ferroni, L., and Zavan, B. (2023). Role of Epicardial Adipose Tissue Secretome on Cardiovascular Diseases. Biomedicines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11061653"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-024-01521-0","article-title":"Exosomes derived from programmed cell death: Mechanism and biological significance","volume":"22","author":"Xiong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bellin, G., Gardin, C., Ferroni, L., Chachques, J.C., Rogante, M., Mitre\u010di\u0107, D., Ferrari, R., and Zavan, B. (2019). Exosome in Cardiovascular Diseases: A Complex World Full of Hope. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8020166"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34653","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0034653","article-title":"Cardiomyocyte microvesicles contain DNA\/RNA and convey biological messages to target cells","volume":"7","author":"Hellman","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2024.107309","article-title":"Insight into endothelial cell-derived extracellular vesicles in cardiovascular disease: Molecular mechanisms and clinical implications","volume":"207","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2012.05.031","article-title":"The proteome of erythrocyte-derived microparticles from plasma: New clues for erythrocyte aging and vesiculation","volume":"76","author":"Bosman","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6391264","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/6391264","article-title":"Phenotyping of Leukocytes and Leukocyte-Derived Extracellular Vesicles","volume":"2016","author":"Pugholm","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6720819","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/6720819","article-title":"Circulating CD3+HLA-DR+ Extracellular Vesicles as a Marker for Th1\/Tc1-Type Immune Responses","volume":"2019","author":"Oba","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1002\/JLB.3AB0520-339RR","article-title":"Neutrophil-derived extracellular vesicles modulate the phenotype of na\u00efve human neutrophils","volume":"110","author":"Amjadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.12554","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles from blood plasma: Determination of their morphology, size, phenotype and concentration","volume":"12","author":"Arraud","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s12865-023-00560-5","article-title":"Platelet-derived extracellular vesicles promote endothelial dysfunction in sepsis by enhancing neutrophil extracellular traps","volume":"24","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMC Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1112","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2008-06-163832","article-title":"Megakaryocyte-derived microparticles: Direct visualization and distinction from platelet-derived microparticles","volume":"113","author":"Flaumenhaft","year":"2009","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2810","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1538-7836.2010.04088.x","article-title":"Internalization of microparticles by endothelial cells promotes platelet\/endothelial cell interaction under flow","volume":"8","author":"Terrisse","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6543","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1002788","article-title":"Microparticles (ectosomes) shed by stored human platelets downregulate macrophages and modify the development of dendritic cells","volume":"186","author":"Sadallah","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardiores.2005.04.007","article-title":"Platelet-derived microparticles induce angiogenesis and stimulate post-ischemic revascularization","volume":"67","author":"Brill","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1002\/JLB.3A0821-451RR","article-title":"Erythrocyte-derived extracellular vesicles aggravate inflammation by promoting the proinflammatory macrophage phenotype through TLR4-MyD88-NF-\u03baB-MAPK pathway","volume":"112","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaax8005","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aax8005","article-title":"Endothelial extracellular vesicles contain protective proteins and rescue ischemia-reperfusion injury in a human heart-on-chi","volume":"12","author":"Yadid","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3997","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2013-02-478925","article-title":"Endothelial cells require miR-214 to secrete exosomes that suppress senescence and induce angiogenesis in human and mouse endothelial cells","volume":"121","author":"Smits","year":"2013","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8407","DOI":"10.3390\/cimb46080496","article-title":"Cardiovascular Risk in Philadelphia-Negative Myeloproliferative Neoplasms: Mechanisms and Implications-A Narrative Review","volume":"46","author":"Todor","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.114.300584","article-title":"Role of exosomes in myocardial remodeling","volume":"114","author":"Ronquist","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32765","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0032765","article-title":"Hsp20 functions as a novel cardiokine in promoting angiogenesis via activation of VEGFR2","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvt047","article-title":"Extracellular HSP60 induces inflammation through activating and up-regulating TLRs in cardiomyocytes","volume":"98","author":"Tian","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2009.06.095","article-title":"Heat shock protein 70 is secreted from endothelial cells by a non-classical pathway involving exosomes","volume":"387","author":"Zhan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvv260","article-title":"Cardiomyocyte exosomes regulate glycolytic flux in endothelium by direct transfer of GLUT transporters and glycolytic enzymes","volume":"109","author":"Garcia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Felekkis, K., and Papaneophytou, C. (2020). Challenges in Using Circulating Micro-RNAs as Biomarkers for Cardiovascular Diseases. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21020561"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5165","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.17541","article-title":"Macrophage-derived exosomal miR-4532 promotes endothelial cells injury by targeting SP1 and NF-\u03baB P65 signalling activation","volume":"26","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Cell Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1789","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01789","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles Work as a Functional Inflammatory Mediator Between Vascular Endothelial Cells and Immune Cells","volume":"9","author":"Hosseinkhani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nano.2017.03.010","article-title":"Direct detection of nano-scale extracellular vesicles derived from inflammation-triggered endothelial cells using surface plasmon resonance","volume":"13","author":"Hosseinkhani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12648","DOI":"10.1111\/sji.12648","article-title":"Endothelial extracellular vesicles modulate the macrophage phenotype: Potential implications in atherosclerosis","volume":"87","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"3298","article-title":"MiR-30e and miR-92a are related to atherosclerosis by targeting ABCA1","volume":"19","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.113.301209","article-title":"Circulating p53-responsive microRNAs are predictive indicators of heart failure after acute myocardial infarction","volume":"113","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1007\/s00109-016-1387-2","article-title":"Exosomal transfer of miR-30a between cardiomyocytes regulates autophagy after hypoxia","volume":"94","author":"Yang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16182","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-73411-7","article-title":"Sphingolipid composition of circulating extracellular vesicles after myocardial ischemia","volume":"10","author":"Burrello","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"53","article-title":"Serum extracellular vesicle protein levels are associated with acute coronary syndrome","volume":"2","author":"Timmers","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J. Acute Cardiovasc. Care"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.117.310752","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles in Cardiovascular Disease: Potential Applications in Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Epidemiology","volume":"120","author":"Jansen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jebari-Benslaiman, S., Galicia-Garc\u00eda, U., Larrea-Sebal, A., Olaetxea, J.R., Alloza, I., Vandenbroeck, K., Benito-Vicente, A., and Mart\u00edn, C. (2022). Pathophysiology of Atherosclerosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23063346"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.115.306301","article-title":"Endothelial Cell Dysfunction and the Pathobiology of Atherosclerosis","volume":"118","author":"Gimbrone","year":"2016","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5245308","DOI":"10.1155\/2020\/5245308","article-title":"Mechanistic Insights into the Oxidized Low-Density Lipoprotein-Induced Atherosclerosis","volume":"2020","author":"Khatana","year":"2020","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell Longev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"845942","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.845942","article-title":"Foam Cells in Atherosclerosis: Novel Insights Into Its Origins, Consequences, and Molecular Mechanisms","volume":"9","author":"Gui","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2019.04.051","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles in atherosclerosis","volume":"495","author":"Deng","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1906","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.12712","article-title":"Exosome poly-ubiquitin inhibits platelet activation, downregulates CD36 and inhibits pro-atherothombotic cellular functions","volume":"12","author":"Srikanthan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.122.063402","article-title":"Multiomics of Tissue Extracellular Vesicles Identifies Unique Modulators of Atherosclerosis and Calcific Aortic Valve Stenosis","volume":"148","author":"Blaser","year":"2023","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellsig.2020.109751","article-title":"Extracellular vesicle signalling in atherosclerosis","volume":"75","author":"Charla","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Signal"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u0142ynarska, E., Czarnik, W., Fularski, P., Hajdys, J., Majchrowicz, G., Stabrawa, M., Rysz, J., and Franczyk, B. (2024). From Atherosclerotic Plaque to Myocardial Infarction-The Leading Cause of Coronary Artery Occlusion. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25137295"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2040-4603.2015.tb00664.x","article-title":"Pathophysiology of Myocardial Infarction","volume":"5","author":"Frangogiannis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvs237","article-title":"Circulating microparticles generate and transport monomeric C-reactive protein in patients with myocardial infarction","volume":"96","author":"Habersberger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2010.01.002","article-title":"C-reactive protein in myocardial infarction binds to circulating microparticles but is not associated with complement activation","volume":"135","author":"Trouw","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6315","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.52843","article-title":"CircUbe3a from M2 macrophage-derived small extracellular vesicles mediates myocardial fibrosis after acute myocardial infarction","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2016.09.001","article-title":"Macrophage-Derived mir-155-Containing Exosomes Suppress Fibroblast Proliferation and Promote Fibroblast Inflammation during Cardiac Injury","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1007\/s00395-020-0781-7","article-title":"M1-like macrophage-derived exosomes suppress angiogenesis and exacerbate cardiac dysfunction in a myocardial infarction microenvironment","volume":"115","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Basic. Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H769","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00659.2021","article-title":"Extracellular vesicle-mediated bidirectional communication between heart and other organs","volume":"322","author":"Gabisonia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933215","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.933215","article-title":"Edema formation in congestive heart failure and the underlying mechanisms","volume":"9","author":"Abassi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2727","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.942268","article-title":"Molecular pathways underlying cardiac remodeling during pathophysiological stimulation","volume":"122","author":"Kehat","year":"2010","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.21037\/cdt-20-302","article-title":"Pathophysiology of heart failure","volume":"11","author":"Schwinger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diagn. Ther."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2017.03.011","article-title":"Plasma-derived exosomes contribute to inflammation via the TLR9-NF-\u03baB pathway in chronic heart failure patients","volume":"87","author":"Ye","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/s11239-019-01889-8","article-title":"Intravascular cells and circulating microparticles induce procoagulant activity via phosphatidylserine exposure in heart failure","volume":"48","author":"Kou","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Thrombolysis"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.118.312156","article-title":"Treatment of Resistant and Refractory Hypertension","volume":"124","author":"Acelajado","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1136\/heart.89.9.1104","article-title":"Cardiac and vascular pathophysiology in hypertension","volume":"89","author":"Mayet","year":"2003","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1093\/ajh\/hpy083","article-title":"Hypertension Induced Morphological and Physiological Changes in Cells of the Arterial Wall","volume":"31","author":"McCarthy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1177\/1535370220974600","article-title":"Importance of extracellular vesicles in hypertension","volume":"246","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5028","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.7.5028","article-title":"Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and xanthine oxidase regulate nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species productions by apoptotic lymphocyte microparticles in endothelial cells","volume":"180","author":"Mostefai","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.119.12944","article-title":"Characterization and Gene Expression Analysis of Serum-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Primary Aldosteronism","volume":"74","author":"Burrello","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9150(01)00433-6","article-title":"High-shear-stress-induced activation of platelets and microparticles enhances expression of cell adhesion molecules in THP-1 and endothelial cells","volume":"158","author":"Nomura","year":"2001","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733985","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2021.733985","article-title":"Mechanisms of Action of MiRNAs and LncRNAs in Extracellular Vesicle in Atherosclerosis","volume":"8","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113480","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2022.113480","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles as an emerging drug delivery system for cancer treatment: Current strategies and recent advances","volume":"153","author":"Wang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.14336\/AD.2021.0708","article-title":"Therapeutic Potential of Nucleic Acids when Combined with Extracellular Vesicles","volume":"12","author":"Jurgielewicz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging Dis."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeng, H., Guo, S., Ren, X., Wu, Z., Liu, S., and Yao, X. (2023). Current Strategies for Exosome Cargo Loading and Targeting Delivery. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12101416"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1186\/s40824-023-00410-w","article-title":"Exosomes derived from mir-214-3p overexpressing mesenchymal stem cells promote myocardial repair","volume":"27","author":"Zhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomater. Res."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121000","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biomaterials.2021.121000","article-title":"Mononuclear phagocyte system blockade using extracellular vesicles modified with CD47 on membrane surface for myocardial infarction reperfusion injury treatment","volume":"275","author":"Wei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomaterials"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.omtn.2018.01.010","article-title":"miR-93-5p-Containing Exosomes Treatment Attenuates Acute Myocardial Infarction-Induced Myocardial Damage","volume":"11","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. Nucleic Acids"},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"1064","article-title":"Cardiomyocyte progenitor cell-derived exosomes stimulate migration of endothelial cells","volume":"14","author":"Vrijsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Cell Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2010.06.010","article-title":"Secreted monocytic miR-150 enhances targeted endothelial cell migration","volume":"39","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4068","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201913700","article-title":"Molecularly Engineered Macrophage-Derived Exosomes with Inflammation Tropism and Intrinsic Heme Biosynthesis for Atherosclerosis Treatment","volume":"59","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1333882","DOI":"10.1080\/20013078.2017.1333882","article-title":"Low active loading of cargo into engineered extracellular vesicles results in inefficient miRNA mimic delivery","volume":"6","author":"Sutaria","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1080\/14686996.2022.2133342","article-title":"Advances of engineered extracellular vesicles-based therapeutics strategy","volume":"23","author":"Komuro","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/14\/6817\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:10:39Z","timestamp":1760033439000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/14\/6817"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]]},"references-count":105,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26146817"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26146817","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,16]]}}}