{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T20:07:45Z","timestamp":1790885265134,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]],"date-time":"2025-07-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752796800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Determining the optimal duration of antibiotic therapy for infections caused by multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria (MDR-GNB) is a critical challenge in clinical medicine, balancing therapeutic efficacy against the risks of adverse effects and antimicrobial resistance. This narrative review synthesises current evidence and guidelines regarding antibiotic duration for MDR-GNB infections, emphasising bloodstream infections (BSI), hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia (HAP\/VAP), complicated urinary tract infections (cUTIs), and intra-abdominal infections (IAIs). Despite robust evidence supporting shorter courses (3\u20137 days) in uncomplicated infections caused by more susceptible pathogens, data guiding optimal therapy duration for MDR-GNB remain limited, particularly concerning carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE), difficult-to-treat Pseudomonas aeruginosa (DTR-Pa), and carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB). Current guidelines from major societies, including IDSA and ESCMID, provide explicit antimicrobial selection advice but notably lack detailed recommendations on the duration of therapy. Existing studies demonstrate non-inferiority of shorter versus longer antibiotic courses in specific clinical contexts but frequently exclude critically ill patients or those infected with non-fermenting MDR pathogens. Individualised duration decisions must integrate clinical response, patient immunologic status, infection severity, source control adequacy, and pharmacologic considerations. Significant knowledge gaps persist, underscoring the urgent need for targeted research, particularly randomised controlled trials assessing optimal antibiotic duration for the most challenging MDR-GNB infections. Clinicians must navigate considerable uncertainty, relying on nuanced judgement and close monitoring to achieve successful outcomes while advancing antimicrobial stewardship goals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26146905","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]],"date-time":"2025-07-18T11:12:34Z","timestamp":1752837154000},"page":"6905","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Antibiotic Therapy Duration for Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections: An Evidence-Based Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5650-6911","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Marino","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, ARNAS Garibaldi Hospital, 95122 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-9899-4040","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Egle","family":"Augello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Science, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical Toxicology Unit, University Hospital of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2646-7808","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlo Maria","family":"Bellanca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Science, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical Toxicology Unit, University Hospital of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, 95123 Cagliari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Federica","family":"Cosentino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, ARNAS Garibaldi Hospital, 95122 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0653-9560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"Stracquadanio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Enna \u201cKore\u201d, 94100 Enna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2156-7554","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luigi","family":"La Via","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, University Hospital Policlinico \u201cG. Rodolico-San Marco\u201d, 24046 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1251-0185","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonino","family":"Maniaci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Enna \u201cKore\u201d, 94100 Enna, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Serena","family":"Spampinato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, ARNAS Garibaldi Hospital, 95122 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paola","family":"Fadda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Neuroscience and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Cagliari, 95123 Cagliari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7670-9337","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppina","family":"Cantarella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Science, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Renato","family":"Bernardini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Science, Section of Pharmacology, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruno","family":"Cacopardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, ARNAS Garibaldi Hospital, 95122 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8113-8452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Nunnari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Infectious Diseases, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, ARNAS Garibaldi Hospital, 95122 Catania, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2025, June 22). About Antimicrobial Resistance|Antimicrobial Resistance|CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/antimicrobial-resistance\/about\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2025, June 22). About Gram-Negative Bacteria|Gram-Negative Bacteria|CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/gram-negative-bacteria\/about\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2016.1207834","article-title":"Role of Newer and Re-Emerging Older Agents in the Treatment of Infections Caused by Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"8","author":"Thaden","year":"2017","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marino, A., Maniaci, A., Lentini, M., Ronsivalle, S., Nunnari, G., Cocuzza, S., Parisi, F.M., Cacopardo, B., Lavalle, S., and La Via, L. (2025). The Global Burden of Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria. Epidemiologia, 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/epidemiologia6020021"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2025, June 22). Antimicrobial Resistance Facts and Stats|Antimicrobial Resistance|CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/antimicrobial-resistance\/data-research\/facts-stats\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"(2025, June 22). Epidemiology of MDROs|Infection Control|CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/infection-control\/hcp\/mdro-management\/epidemiology.html."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2025, June 22). Background|Infection Control|CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/infection-control\/hcp\/mdro-management\/background.html."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.3390\/idr14040067","article-title":"Oral Fosfomycin Formulation in Bacterial Prostatitis: New Role for an Old Molecule-Brief Literature Review and Clinical Considerations","volume":"14","author":"Marino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"939","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000004371","article-title":"Key Takeaways from the U.S. CDC\u2019s 2019 Antibiotic Resistance Threats Report for Frontline Providers","volume":"48","author":"Kadri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"(2025, June 22). 2019 Antibiotic Resistance Threats Report|Antimicrobial Resistance|CDC, Available online: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/antimicrobial-resistance\/data-research\/threats\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sati, H., Carrara, E., Savoldi, A., Hansen, P., Garlasco, J., Campagnaro, E., Boccia, S., Castillo-Polo, J.A., Magrini, E., and Garcia-Vello, P. (2025). The WHO Bacterial Priority Pathogens List 2024: A Prioritisation Study to Guide Research, Development, and Public Health Strategies against Antimicrobial Resistance. Lancet Infect. Dis., 11.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(25)00118-5"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000491","article-title":"Optimal Duration of Antibiotic Treatment in Gram-Negative Infections","volume":"31","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.12788\/jhm.2905","article-title":"Shorter versus Longer Courses of Antibiotics for Infection in Hospitalized Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"13","author":"Royer","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corona, A., De Santis, V., Agarossi, A., Prete, A., Cattaneo, D., Tomasini, G., Bonetti, G., Patroni, A., and Latronico, N. (2023). Antibiotic Therapy Strategies for Treating Gram-Negative Severe Infections in the Critically Ill: A Narrative Review. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12081262"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dlae215","DOI":"10.1093\/jacamr\/dlae215","article-title":"Antibiotic Duration for Common Bacterial Infections\u2014A Systematic Review","volume":"7","author":"Mo","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAC Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1488","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01823-12","article-title":"Emergence of Imipenem-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacilli in Intestinal Flora of Intensive Care Patients","volume":"57","author":"Angebault","year":"2013","journal-title":"Antimicrob. Agents Chemother."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"Doc05","article-title":"Antibiotic Resistance: What Is so Special about Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteria?","volume":"12","author":"Exner","year":"2017","journal-title":"GMS Hyg. Infect. Control"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dlab092","DOI":"10.1093\/jacamr\/dlab092","article-title":"Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamases: An Update on Their Characteristics, Epidemiology and Detection","volume":"3","author":"Castanheira","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAC Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dlab068","DOI":"10.1093\/jacamr\/dlab068","article-title":"Adverse Clinical Outcomes Associated with Infections by Enterobacterales Producing ESBL (ESBL-E): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"3","author":"Ling","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAC Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramatla, T., Mafokwane, T., Lekota, K., Monyama, M., Khasapane, G., Serage, N., Nkhebenyane, J., Bezuidenhout, C., and Thekisoe, O. (2023). \u201cOne Health\u201d Perspective on Prevalence of Co-Existing Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamase (ESBL)-Producing Escherichia Coli and Klebsiella Pneumoniae: A Comprehensive Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12941-023-00638-3"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1086\/677157","article-title":"Rising Rates of Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae in Community Hospitals: A Mixed-Methods Review of Epidemiology and Microbiology Practices in a Network of Community Hospitals in the Southeastern United States","volume":"35","author":"Thaden","year":"2014","journal-title":"Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e169","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa1478","article-title":"Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidance on the Treatment of Extended-Spectrum \u03b2-Lactamase Producing Enterobacterales (ESBL-E), Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales (CRE), and Pseudomonas Aeruginosa with Difficult-to-Treat Resistance (DTR-P. Aeruginosa)","volume":"72","author":"Tamma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tamma, P.D., Heil, E.L., Justo, J.A., Mathers, A.J., Satlin, M.J., and Bonomo, R.A. (2024). Infectious Diseases Society of America 2024 Guidance on the Treatment of Antimicrobial-Resistant Gram-Negative Infections. Clin. Infect. Dis., ciae403.","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciae403"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"WHO (2025, June 22). Updates List of Drug-Resistant Bacteria Most Threatening to Human Health. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/news\/item\/17-05-2024-who-updates-list-of-drug-resistant-bacteria-most-threatening-to-human-health."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Di, L., Qi, Y., Qian, X., and Wang, S. (2024). Treatment of Infections Caused by Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter Baumannii. Front. Cell Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1395260"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marino, A., Augello, E., Stracquadanio, S., Bellanca, C.M., Cosentino, F., Spampinato, S., Cantarella, G., Bernardini, R., Stefani, S., and Cacopardo, B. (2024). Unveiling the Secrets of Acinetobacter Baumannii: Resistance, Current Treatments, and Future Innovations. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25136814"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.37201\/req\/s01.11.2023","article-title":"Treatment Guidelines for Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Microorganisms","volume":"36","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quimioter."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2089","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciab1013","article-title":"Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidance on the Treatment of AmpC \u03b2-Lactamase-Producing Enterobacterales, Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter Baumannii, and Stenotrophomonas Maltophilia Infections","volume":"74","author":"Tamma","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geremia, N., Marino, A., De Vito, A., Giovagnorio, F., Stracquadanio, S., Colpani, A., Di Bella, S., Madeddu, G., Parisi, S.G., and Stefani, S. (2025). Rare or Unusual Non-Fermenting Gram-Negative Bacteria: Therapeutic Approach and Antibiotic Treatment Options. Antibiotics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14030306"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"IDSA (2025, June 22). Guidance on the Treatment of Antimicrobial Resistant Gram-Negative Infections. Available online: https:\/\/www.idsociety.org\/practice-guideline\/amr-guidance\/."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad476","article-title":"Identifying Effective Durations of Antibiotic Therapy for the Treatment of Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales Bloodstream Infections: A Multicenter Observational Study","volume":"78","author":"Soto","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1007\/s11908-022-00785-2","article-title":"No Crystal Ball? Using Risk Factors and Scoring Systems to Predict Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase Producing Enterobacterales (ESBL-E) and Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) Infections","volume":"24","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofab434","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofab434","article-title":"Optimizing the Management of Uncomplicated Gram-Negative Bloodstream Infections: Consensus Guidance Using a Modified Delphi Process","volume":"8","author":"Heil","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e103","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciq257","article-title":"International Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Treatment of Acute Uncomplicated Cystitis and Pyelonephritis in Women: A 2010 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases","volume":"52","author":"Gupta","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sader, H.S., Duncan, L.R., Arends, S.J.R., Carvalhaes, C.G., and Castanheira, M. (2020). Antimicrobial Activity of Aztreonam-Avibactam and Comparator Agents When Tested against a Large Collection of Contemporary Stenotrophomonas Maltophilia Isolates from Medical Centers Worldwide. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 64.","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.01433-20"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(23)00184-6","article-title":"Efficacy and Safety of Sulbactam\u2013Durlobactam versus Colistin for the Treatment of Patients with Serious Infections Caused by Acinetobacter Baumannii\u2013Calcoaceticus Complex: A Multicentre, Randomised, Active-Controlled, Phase 3, Non-Inferiority Clinical Trial (ATTACK)","volume":"23","author":"Kaye","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.11.025","article-title":"European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Guidelines for the Treatment of Infections Caused by Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacilli (Endorsed by European Society of Intensive Care Medicine)","volume":"28","author":"Paul","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"(2025, June 23). GRADE Handbook. Available online: https:\/\/gdt.gradepro.org\/app\/handbook\/handbook.html."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2025, June 15). 2021 Antibacterial Agents in Clinical and Preclinical Development: An Overview and Analysis. Available online: https:\/\/books.google.co.jp\/books?hl=en&lr=&id=UHgOEQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR6&dq=2021+Antibacterial+agents+in+clinical+and+preclinical+development:+an+overview+and+analysis&ots=coT6TDPKoB&sig=Wjxm-lRLZnG526S_URNsrqqh-L4#v=onepage&q=2021%20Antibacterial%20agents%20in%20clinical%20and%20preclinical%20development%3A%20an%20overview%20and%20analysis&f=false."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2021.106344","article-title":"Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of in Vitro Efficacy of Antibiotic Combination Therapy against Carbapenem-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacilli","volume":"57","author":"Scudeller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(17)30753-3","article-title":"Discovery, Research, and Development of New Antibiotics: The WHO Priority List of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Tuberculosis","volume":"18","author":"Tacconelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"ESCMID (2025, June 23). The Update of the 2021 European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID) Guidelines for the Treatment of Infections Caused by Multidrug-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacilli. Available online: https:\/\/www.escmid.org\/guidelines-journals\/guidelines\/guidelines-in-development\/the-update-of-the-2021-european-society-of-clinical-microbiology-and-infectious-diseases-escmid-guidelines-for-the-treatment-of-infections-caused-by-multidrug-resistant-gram-negative-bacilli\/."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"ESCMID (2025, June 23). Guidelines in Development. Available online: https:\/\/www.escmid.org\/guidelines-journals\/guidelines\/guidelines-in-development\/."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2022.01.030","article-title":"IDSA Guidance and ESCMID Guidelines: Complementary Approaches toward a Care Standard for MDR Gram-Negative Infections","volume":"28","author":"Lawandi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dlac058","DOI":"10.1093\/jacamr\/dlac058","article-title":"Is Shorter Always Better? The Pros and Cons of Treating Gram-Negative Bloodstream Infections with 7 Days of Antibiotics","volume":"4","author":"Yahav","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAC Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad781","article-title":"Shorter Versus Longer Course of Antibiotic Therapy for Gram-Negative Bacteremia: Time for a Tailored Duration?","volume":"79","author":"Dudoignon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2018.11.002","article-title":"The Quality of Studies Evaluating Antimicrobial Stewardship Interventions: A Systematic Review","volume":"25","author":"Schweitzer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1086\/526535","article-title":"The Maxwell Finland Lecture: For the Duration\u2014Rational Antibiotic Administration in an Era of Antimicrobial Resistance and Clostridium Difficile","volume":"46","author":"Rice","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkr508","article-title":"Time Interval of Increased Risk for Clostridium Difficile Infection after Exposure to Antibiotics","volume":"67","author":"Hensgens","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4554","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1000087107","article-title":"Incomplete Recovery and Individualized Responses of the Human Distal Gut Microbiota to Repeated Antibiotic Perturbation","volume":"108","author":"Dethlefsen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp1215093","article-title":"The Future of Antibiotics and Resistance","volume":"368","author":"Spellberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2016.3646","article-title":"The New Antibiotic Mantra\u2014\u201dshorter Is Better\u201d","volume":"176","author":"Spellberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"(2025, June 23). Shorter Is Better|Mysite. Available online: https:\/\/www.bradspellberg.com\/shorter-is-better."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1091","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy1054","article-title":"Seven Versus 14 Days of Antibiotic Therapy for Uncomplicated Gram-Negative Bacteremia: A Noninferiority Randomized Controlled Trial","volume":"69","author":"Yahav","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2160","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.6348","article-title":"Effect of C-Reactive Protein-Guided Antibiotic Treatment Duration, 7-Day Treatment, or 14-Day Treatment on 30-Day Clinical Failure Rate in Patients with Uncomplicated Gram-Negative Bacteremia: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"323","author":"Albrich","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.09.001","article-title":"Seven-versus 14-Day Course of Antibiotics for the Treatment of Bloodstream Infections by Enterobacterales: A Randomized, Controlled Trial","volume":"28","author":"Molina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2022.101750","article-title":"Duration of Antibiotic Treatment for Gram-Negative Bacteremia\u2014Systematic Review and Individual Participant Data (IPD) Meta-Analysis","volume":"55","author":"Turjeman","year":"2023","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The BALANCE Investigators, for the Canadian Critical Care Trials Group, Association of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Disease Canada Clinical Research Network, and Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group (2025). Australasian Society for Infectious Diseases Clinical Research Network Antibiotic Treatment for 7 versus 14 Days in Patients with Bloodstream Infections. N. Engl. J. Med., 392, 1065\u20131078.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2404991"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e251421","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2025.1421","article-title":"Seven vs Fourteen Days of Antibiotics for Gram-Negative Bloodstream Infection: A Systematic Review and Noninferiority Meta-Analysis","volume":"8","author":"Lee","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, R.D., Garcia, R.C.L., Bittencourt, G.A., Waichel, V.B., Garcia, E.C.L., and Rigatto, M.H. (2023). Antimicrobial Therapy Duration for Bloodstream Infections Caused by Pseudomonas Aeruginosa or Acinetobacter Baumannii-Calcoaceticus Complex: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12030538"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dimopoulou, D., Moschopoulos, C.D., Dimopoulou, K., Dimopoulou, A., Berikopoulou, M.M., Andrianakis, I., Tsiodras, S., Kotanidou, A., and Fragkou, P.C. (2024). Duration of Antimicrobial Treatment in Adult Patients with Pneumonia: A Narrative Review. Antibiotics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics13111078"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101880","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eclinm.2023.101880","article-title":"Comparison of a Short versus Long-Course Antibiotic Therapy for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"58","author":"Daghmouri","year":"2023","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciac784","article-title":"Less Is More? Antibiotic Treatment Duration in Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia","volume":"76","author":"Albin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000861","article-title":"Duration of Antibiotic Therapy in Gram-Negative Infections with a Particular Focus on Multidrug-Resistant Pathogens","volume":"35","author":"Haddad","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Truong, C.N., Chin-Beckford, N., Vega, A., DeRonde, K., Simon, J., Abbo, L.M., Rosa, R., and Vu, C.A. (2024). Duration of Antibiotic Therapy for Multidrug Resistant Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Pneumonia: Is Shorter Truly Better?. BMC Infect. Dis., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-024-09600-w"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.9899","article-title":"Effect of 7 vs. 14 Days of Antibiotic Therapy on Resolution of Symptoms among Afebrile Men with Urinary Tract Infection: A Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"326","author":"Drekonja","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otero, J.\u00c1., Lamas Ferreiro, J.L., Rivo, A.S., Pi\u00f1eiro, F.M., Gonz\u00e1lez, L.G., de Salamanca Holzinger, I.E., Cavero, J., Conde, I.R., Soneira, M.F., and de la Fuente Aguado, J. (2020). Treatment Duration of Complicated Urinary Tract Infections by Extended-Spectrum Betalactamases Producing Enterobacterales. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0237365"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad009","article-title":"Defining the Optimal Duration of Therapy for Hospitalized Patients with Complicated Urinary Tract Infections and Associated Bacteremia","volume":"76","author":"McAteer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1089\/sur.2009.9930","article-title":"Diagnosis and Management of Complicated Intra-Abdominal Infection in Adults and Children: Guidelines by the Surgical Infection Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America","volume":"11","author":"Solomkin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Surg. Infect."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17","DOI":"10.2165\/11599800-000000000-00000","article-title":"Essentials for Selecting Antimicrobial Therapy for Intra-Abdominal Infections","volume":"72","author":"Blot","year":"2012","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1996","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1411162","article-title":"Trial of Short-Course Antimicrobial Therapy for Intraabdominal Infection","volume":"372","author":"Sawyer","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0000000000003998","article-title":"Duration of Antimicrobial Treatment for Complicated Intra-Abdominal Infections after Definitive Source Control: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Practice Management Guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma","volume":"95","author":"Ra","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Trauma Acute Care Surg."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2020.10.029","article-title":"Optimal Antibiotic Duration for Bloodstream Infections Secondary to Intraabdominal Infection","volume":"260","author":"Patel","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s13017-021-00387-8","article-title":"WSES\/GAIS\/SIS-E\/WSIS\/AAST Global Clinical Pathways for Patients with Intra-Abdominal Infections","volume":"16","author":"Sartelli","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Emerg. Surg."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2588","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.290.19.2588","article-title":"Comparison of 8 vs 15 Days of Antibiotic Therapy for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia in Adults: A Randomized Trial","volume":"290","author":"Chastre","year":"2003","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_76","first-page":"CD007577","article-title":"Short-Course versus Prolonged-Course Antibiotic Therapy for Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia in Critically Ill Adults","volume":"2015","author":"Pugh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst. Rev."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1759","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.13-0076","article-title":"Short- vs Long-Duration Antibiotic Regimens for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"144","author":"Dimopoulos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1097\/QCO.0000000000000245","article-title":"Duration of Therapy of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia","volume":"29","author":"Dimopoulos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e61","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw353","article-title":"Management of Adults with Hospital-Acquired and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia: 2016 Clinical Practice Guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society","volume":"63","author":"Kalil","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700582","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00582-2017","article-title":"International ERS\/ESICM\/ESCMID\/ALAT Guidelines for the Management of Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia","volume":"50","author":"Torres","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E45","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201908-1581ST","article-title":"Diagnosis and Treatment of Adults with Community-Acquired Pneumonia","volume":"200","author":"Metlay","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-023-07033-8","article-title":"ERS\/ESICM\/ESCMID\/ALAT Guidelines for the Management of Severe Community-Acquired Pneumonia","volume":"49","author":"Torres","year":"2023","journal-title":"Intensiv. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Nieuwkoop, C., van der Starre, W.E., Stalenhoef, J.E., van Aartrijk, A.M., van der Reijden, T.J.K., Vollaard, A.M., Delfos, N.M., van\u2019t Wout, J.W., Blom, J.W., and Spelt, I.C. (2017). Treatment Duration of Febrile Urinary Tract Infection: A Pragmatic Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Non-Inferiority Trial in Men and Women. BMC Med., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-017-0835-3"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofz216","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofz216","article-title":"No Clinical Benefit to Treating Male Urinary Tract Infection Longer Than Seven Days: An Outpatient Database Study","volume":"6","author":"Germanos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"(2025, June 27). Optimizing Antibiotics in Patients with Intra-Abdominal Infections\u2014Global Alliance for Infections in Surgery. Available online: https:\/\/infectionsinsurgery.org\/optimizing-antibiotics-use-in-patients-with-intra-abdomional-infections\/."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Le Berre, C., Degrendel, M., Houard, M., Benetazzo, L., Vach\u00e9e, A., Georges, H., Wallet, F., Patoz, P., Bortolotti, P., and Nseir, S. (2025). Optimizing Antibiotic Treatment Duration for ESBL-Producing Enterobacteriaceae Bacteremia in ICU: A Multicentric Retrospective Cohort Study. Antibiotics, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics14040358"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tansarli, G.S., Andreatos, N., Pliakos, E.E., and Mylonakis, E. (2019). A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Antibiotic Treatment Duration for Bacteremia Due to Enterobacteriaceae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 63.","DOI":"10.1128\/AAC.02495-18"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkx146","article-title":"Global Epidemiology of CTX-M \u03b2-Lactamases: Temporal and Geographical Shifts in Genotype","volume":"72","author":"Bevan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Antimicrob. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dlac106","DOI":"10.1093\/jacamr\/dlac106","article-title":"Comparative Effectiveness of Antibiotic Therapy for Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) Bloodstream Infections in Hospitalized US Veterans","volume":"4","author":"Wilson","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAC Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marino, A., Campanella, E., Stracquadanio, S., Calvo, M., Migliorisi, G., Nicolosi, A., Cosentino, F., Marletta, S., Spampinato, S., and Prestifilippo, P. (2023). Ceftazidime\/Avibactam and Meropenem\/Vaborbactam for the Management of Enterobacterales Infections: A Narrative Review, Clinical Considerations, and Expert Opinion. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12101521"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3126","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000003126","article-title":"Tigecycline Treatment for Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae Infections: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"95","author":"Ni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6907","DOI":"10.2147\/IDR.S390635","article-title":"Mortality-Related Risk Factors and Novel Antimicrobial Regimens for Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae Infections: A Systematic Review","volume":"15","author":"Hu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Drug Resist."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00058-16","article-title":"Clinical and Pathophysiological Overview of Acinetobacter Infections: A Century of Challenges","volume":"30","author":"Wong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S179","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciad094","article-title":"Navigating Available Treatment Options for Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter Baumannii-Calcoaceticus Complex Infections","volume":"76","author":"Shields","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serapide, F., Guastalegname, M., Gull\u00ec, S.P., Lionello, R., Bruni, A., Garofalo, E., Longhini, F., Trecarichi, E.M., and Russo, A. (2024). Antibiotic Treatment of Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter Baumannii Infections in View of the Newly Developed \u03b2-Lactams: A Narrative Review of the Existing Evidence. Antibiotics, 13.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202405.0203.v1"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.3947\/ic.2024.0055","article-title":"Optimizing Treatment for Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter Baumannii Complex Infections: A Review of Current Evidence","volume":"56","author":"Choi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Katip, W., Uitrakul, S., and Oberdorfer, P. (2021). Short-Course versus Long-Course Colistin for Treatment of Carbapenem-Resistant a. baumannii Cancer Patient. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10050484"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1007\/s40121-022-00597-w","article-title":"Carbapenem-Resistant Acinetobacter Baumannii: Colonization, Infection and Current Treatment Options","volume":"11","author":"Bartal","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Ther."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100639","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijregi.2025.100639","article-title":"Possible Reluctance to Shorten Antibiotic Duration in Gram-Negative Bacteremia and Limitations of Mortality-Based Outcomes: The Need to Prioritize Clinical-Microbiologic Recurrence in Future Trials\u2014Insights from the \u201cBacteremia Antibiotic Length Actually Needed for Clinical Effectiveness\u201d (BALANCE) Trial","volume":"15","author":"Patamatamkul","year":"2025","journal-title":"IJID Reg."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"dlac005","DOI":"10.1093\/jacamr\/dlac005","article-title":"Survey of Infectious Diseases Providers Reveals Variability in Duration of Antibiotic Therapy for the Treatment of Gram-Negative Bloodstream Infections","volume":"4","author":"Thaden","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAC Antimicrob. Resist."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1080\/17512433.2017.1369879","article-title":"To Which Extent Can We Decrease Antibiotic Duration in Critically Ill Patients?","volume":"10","author":"Kollef","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.05.050","article-title":"How Representative Is a Point-of-Care Randomized Trial? Clinical Outcomes of Patients Excluded from a Point-of-Care Randomized Controlled Trial Evaluating Antibiotic Duration for Gram-Negative Bacteraemia: A Multicentre Prospective Observational Cohort Study","volume":"28","author":"Rossel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"(2025, June 27). Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Infections Treatment & Management: Approach Considerations, Medical Care, Surgical Care. Available online: https:\/\/emedicine.medscape.com\/article\/226748-treatment#d5."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e030266","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-030266","article-title":"Variation of Effect Estimates in the Analysis of Mortality and Length of Hospital Stay in Patients with Infections Caused by Bacteria-Producing Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"10","author":"Shamsrizi","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2018.6226","article-title":"Association of 30-Day Mortality with Oral Step-Down vs Continued Intravenous Therapy in Patients Hospitalized with Enterobacteriaceae Bacteremia","volume":"179","author":"Tamma","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ofz364","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofz364","article-title":"Oral Fluoroquinolone or Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole vs \u00df-Lactams as Step-Down Therapy for Enterobacteriaceae Bacteremia: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"6","author":"Punjabi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Open Forum Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jointm.2023.12.007","article-title":"Understanding Antimicrobial Pharmacokinetics in Critically Ill Patients to Optimize Antimicrobial Therapy: A Narrative Review","volume":"4","author":"Roger","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Intensiv. Med."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s40780-025-00425-6","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic Variability and Significance of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring for Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobials in Critically Ill Patients","volume":"11","author":"Tanaka","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Health Care Sci."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.9803","article-title":"Prolonged vs Intermittent Infusions of \u03b2-Lactam Antibiotics in Adults with Sepsis or Septic Shock: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"332","author":"Hammond","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-024-05139-z","article-title":"Do Prolonged Infusions of \u03b2-Lactam Antibiotics Improve Outcomes in Critically Ill Patients with Sepsis? It Is Time to Say Yes","volume":"28","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.9779","article-title":"Continuous vs Intermittent \u03b2-Lactam Antibiotic Infusions in Critically Ill Patients with Sepsis: The BLING III Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"332","author":"Dulhunty","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-022-04050-9","article-title":"Expert Clinical Pharmacological Advice May Make an Antimicrobial TDM Program for Emerging Candidates More Clinically Useful in Tailoring Therapy of Critically Ill Patients","volume":"26","author":"Gatti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Wang, C., Chen, J., Bai, C., Sun, D., Qiu, Y., Teng, M., and Dong, Y. (2024). Efficacy, Safety, and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring of Polymyxin B Sulfate and Colistin Sulfate in Critically Ill Patients: A Real-World Retrospective Study. Front. Pharmacol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2024.1466888"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1186\/s40560-023-00699-8","article-title":"aki Efficacy of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring-Based Antibiotic Regimen in Critically Ill Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials","volume":"11","author":"Takahashi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Intensiv. Care"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e522","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000006366","article-title":"Benefits and Harms of Procalcitonin- or C-Reactive Protein-Guided Antimicrobial Discontinuation in Critically Ill Adults with Sepsis: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis*","volume":"52","author":"Kubo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.26458","article-title":"Biomarker-Guided Antibiotic Duration for Hospitalized Patients with Suspected Sepsis: The ADAPT-Sepsis Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"333","author":"Dark","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2022.08.007","article-title":"Shorter Antibiotic Courses in the Immunocompromised: The Impossible Dream?","volume":"29","author":"Imlay","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2016.07.014","article-title":"Prevalence of ESBL-Producing Enterobacteriaceae in Paediatric Urinary Tract Infections: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"73","author":"Flokas","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2022.106611","article-title":"Diagnosis and Management of Infections Caused by Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria: Guideline Endorsed by the Italian Society of Infection and Tropical Diseases (SIMIT), the Italian Society of Anti-Infective Therapy (SITA), the Italian Group for Antimicrobial Stewardship (GISA), the Italian Association of Clinical Microbiologists (AMCLI) and the Italian Society of Microbiology (SIM)","volume":"60","author":"Tiseo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy917","article-title":"Procalcitonin-Guided Antibiotic Treatment in Patients with Positive Blood Cultures: A Patient-Level Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials","volume":"69","author":"Meier","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.3947\/ic.2022.0172","article-title":"Current Status of Antibiotic Stewardship and the Role of Biomarkers in Antibiotic Stewardship Programs","volume":"54","author":"Kim","year":"2022","journal-title":"Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mpmed.2013.08.012","article-title":"Molecular-Based Diagnostics, Including Future Trends","volume":"41","author":"Goldenberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2014.05.005","article-title":"Integrating Rapid Diagnostics and Antimicrobial Stewardship Improves Outcomes in Patients with Antibiotic-Resistant Gram-Negative Bacteremia","volume":"69","author":"Perez","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cix065","article-title":"Eight Habits of Highly Effective Antimicrobial Stewardship Programs to Meet the Joint Commission Standards for Hospitals","volume":"64","author":"Goff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S41","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciw831","article-title":"Advancing Diagnostics to Address Antibacterial Resistance: The Diagnostics and Devices Committee of the Antibacterial Resistance Leadership Group","volume":"64","author":"Tsalik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1373\/jalm.2018.026450","article-title":"Interplay between Rapid Diagnostic Tests and Antimicrobial Stewardship Programs among Patients with Bloodstream and Other Severe Infections","volume":"3","author":"Beganovic","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E39","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa528","article-title":"Randomized Trial Evaluating Clinical Impact of RAPid IDentification and Susceptibility Testing for Gram-Negative Bacteremia: RAPIDS-GN","volume":"73","author":"Banerjee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2022.04.005","article-title":"The Shorter Is Better Movement: Past, Present, Future","volume":"29","author":"Spellberg","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/14\/6905\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:12:05Z","timestamp":1760033525000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/14\/6905"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]]},"references-count":128,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26146905"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26146905","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]]}}}