{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T01:34:24Z","timestamp":1792978464458,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]],"date-time":"2025-07-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752796800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"RMF Grant Universiti Malaya","award":["RMF0337-2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RMF0337-2021"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs), which affect approximately 15% of individuals with diabetes mellitus (DM), result from complex molecular disturbances involving chronic hyperglycemia, immune dysfunction, and infection. At the molecular level, chronic hyperglycemia promotes the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), activates the AGE-RAGE-NF-\u03baB axis, increases oxidative stress, and impairs macrophage polarization from the pro-inflammatory M1 to the reparative M2 phenotype, collectively disrupting normal wound healing processes. The local wound environment is further worsened by antibiotic-resistant polymicrobial infections, which sustain inflammatory signaling and promote extracellular matrix degradation. The rising threat of antimicrobial resistance complicates infection management even further. Recent studies emphasize that optimal glycemic control using antihyperglycemic agents such as metformin, Glucagon-like Peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 receptor agonists), and Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 enzyme inhibitors (DPP-4 inhibitors) improves overall metabolic balance. These agents also influence angiogenesis, inflammation, and tissue regeneration through pathways including AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signaling. Evidence indicates that maintaining glycemic stability through continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and adherence to antihyperglycemic treatment enhances antibiotic effectiveness by improving immune cell function and reducing bacterial virulence. This review consolidates current molecular evidence on the combined effects of glycemic and antibiotic therapies in DFUs. It advocates for an integrated approach that addresses both metabolic and microbial factors to restore wound homeostasis and minimize the risk of severe outcomes such as amputation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26146909","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]],"date-time":"2025-07-18T11:12:34Z","timestamp":1752837154000},"page":"6909","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["From Control to Cure: Insights into the Synergy of Glycemic and Antibiotic Management in Modulating the Severity and Outcomes of Diabetic Foot Ulcers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5584-5074","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Idris Ajibola","family":"Omotosho","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noorasyikin","family":"Shamsuddin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6423-8515","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hasniza","family":"Zaman Huri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4178-2614","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei Lim","family":"Chong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Inayat Ur","family":"Rehman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dickson, M.C., and Skrepnek, G.H. 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