{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T22:10:54Z","timestamp":1790633454479,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,23]],"date-time":"2025-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753228800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"NIH grants National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","award":["AI130790-03"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI130790-03"]}]},{"name":"NIH grants National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases","award":["P20 GM 121299-05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20 GM 121299-05"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences","award":["AI130790-03"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["AI130790-03"]}]},{"name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences","award":["P20 GM 121299-05"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20 GM 121299-05"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Enteroendocrine cells (EECs) are specialized secretory cells in the gut epithelium that differentiate from intestinal stem cells (ISCs). Mature EECs secrete incretin hormones that stimulate pancreatic insulin secretion and regulate appetite. Decreased EEC numbers and impaired secretion of the incretin glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP1) have been implicated in obesity-associated metabolic complications. Gut microbial metabolites of dietary tryptophan (TRP) were recently shown to modulate ISC proliferation and differentiation. However, their specific effects on EEC differentiation are not known. We hypothesized that the gut microbial metabolites of dietary tryptophan counteract impaired GLP1 production and function in obesity by stimulating EEC differentiation from ISCs. We utilized complementary models of human and rat intestines to determine the effects of obesity or TRP metabolites on EEC differentiation. EEC differentiation was assessed by the EEC marker chromogranin A (CHGA) levels in the intestinal mucosa of normal versus obese rats. The effects of TRP metabolites on EEC differentiation were determined in human intestinal organoids treated with indole, a primary TRP metabolite, or the culture supernatant of Lactobacillus acidophilus grown in TRP media (LA-CS-TRP). Our results showed that the mRNA and protein levels of CHGA, the EEC marker, were significantly decreased (~60%) in the intestinal mucosa of high-fat-diet-induced obese rat intestines. The expression of the transcription factors that direct the ISC differentiation towards the EEC lineage was also decreased in obesity. In human organoids, treatment with indole or LA-CS-TRP significantly increased (more than 2-fold) CHGA levels, which were blocked by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) antagonist CH-223191. Thus, the stimulation of EEC differentiation by colonic microbial metabolites highlights a novel therapeutic role of TRP metabolites in obesity and associated metabolic disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26157080","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,23]],"date-time":"2025-07-23T10:49:17Z","timestamp":1753267757000},"page":"7080","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Gut Microbial Metabolites of Tryptophan Augment Enteroendocrine Cell Differentiation in Human Colonic Organoids: Therapeutic Potential for Dysregulated GLP1 Secretion in Obesity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-8567-540X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"James","family":"Hart","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, WV 25755-0001, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hassan","family":"Mansour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, WV 25755-0001, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7908-4050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Harshal","family":"Sawant","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, WV 25755-0001, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Morrison","family":"Chicko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, WV 25755-0001, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Subha","family":"Arthur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, WV 25755-0001, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Haynes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, WV 25755-0001, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5792-1279","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alip","family":"Borthakur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marshall University Joan C. 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