{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T18:56:17Z","timestamp":1792090577548,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":333,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]],"date-time":"2025-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753833600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Childhood obesity is a growing global health concern, with established links to physical activity, nutrition, and, increasingly, to prenatal and perinatal factors. Emerging evidence highlights the significant role of maternal conditions such as obesity, comorbidities, nutrition, and environmental exposures in predisposing offspring to long-term metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. The \u201cDevelopmental Origins of Health and Disease\u201d (DOHaD) paradigm provides a framework for understanding how early life environmental exposures, particularly during the periconceptional, fetal, and neonatal periods, can program future health outcomes through epigenetic mechanisms. Epigenetic modifications alter gene expression without changing the DNA sequence and are increasingly recognized as key mediators in the development of obesity. This narrative review summarizes current findings on the early determinants of childhood obesity, emphasizing the molecular and epigenetic pathways involved. A comprehensive literature search was conducted across multiple databases and international sources, focusing on recent studies from the past decade. Both human and animal research were included to provide a broad perspective. This review aims to consolidate recent insights into early life influences on obesity, underscoring the need for preventive strategies starting as early as the preconception period.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26157388","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]],"date-time":"2025-07-30T16:09:27Z","timestamp":1753891767000},"page":"7388","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["Early Roots of Childhood Obesity: Risk Factors, Mechanisms, and Prevention Strategies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5570-6620","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppina Rosaria","family":"Umano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of the Woman, the Child, of General and Specialized Surgery, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 80138 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8521-497X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simonetta","family":"Bellone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Pediatrics, Department of Health Sciences, University of Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1850-2300","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raffaele","family":"Buganza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, Regina Margherita Childrens\u2019 Hospital, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2137-5974","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valeria","family":"Calcaterra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric and Adolescent Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy"},{"name":"Pediatric Department, Buzzi Children\u2019s Hospital, 20154 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3628-1612","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Domenico","family":"Corica","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Unit, University Hospital, G. Martino, 98124 Messina, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Human Pathology of Adulthood and Childhood, University of Messina, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Luisa","family":"De Sanctis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, Regina Margherita Childrens\u2019 Hospital, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5877-3757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Di Sessa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of the Woman, the Child, of General and Specialized Surgery, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 80138 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1899-8337","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Felicia","family":"Faienza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pediatric Unit, Department of Precision and Regenerative Medicine and Ionian Area, University of Bari \u201cA. Moro\u201d, 70124 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4235-0917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Improda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuro-Endocrine Diseases and Obesity Unit, Department of Neurosciences, Santobono-Pausilipon Children\u2019s Hospital, 80139 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6699-2231","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Rosaria","family":"Licenziati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuro-Endocrine Diseases and Obesity Unit, Department of Neurosciences, Santobono-Pausilipon Children\u2019s Hospital, 80139 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6581-975X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Melania","family":"Manco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Unit for Preventive and Predictive Medicine, Bambino Ges\u00f9 Children\u2019s Hospital, IRCCS, 00165 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carla","family":"Ungaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Maternal and Child Unit (Local Health Unit) ASL Napoli 1 Centro, 80131 Naples, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9985-7084","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Flavia","family":"Urbano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Giovanni XXIII Pediatric Hospital, University of Bari \u201cA. 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Martino, 98124 Messina, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Human Pathology of Adulthood and Childhood, University of Messina, 98124 Messina, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8427-8971","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Elisabeth","family":"Street","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Unit of Paediatrics, University Hospital of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, 43126 Parma, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.4103\/2249-4863.154628","article-title":"Childhood obesity: Causes and consequences","volume":"4","author":"Sahoo","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Family Med. Prim. 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