{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T16:52:31Z","timestamp":1789750351264,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":163,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,14]],"date-time":"2025-08-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1755129600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union"},{"name":"National Science Centre"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Thirst is usually characterized as an unpleasant sensation provoking drinking of water. The purpose of the present review is to draw attention to the importance of thirst in overall regulation of body fluid homeostasis in health and pathology. Intensity of thirst is determined by signals generated in multiple groups of osmosensitive neurons engaged in dipsogenic and antidipsogenic activities, which are located in the brain cortex, the insula, the amygdala, the median preoptic area, the hypothalamic nuclei and the organum vasculosum laminae terminalis. Water ingestion is also influenced by signals generated in the cardiovascular system, the gastrointestinal system, the pancreas, the liver and the kidney and by changes of body temperature. Regulation of thirst engages the autonomic nervous system and several neuroactive factors synthetized in the brain and the peripheral organs. Among them are components of the renin\u2013angiotensin system, vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide, cholecystokinin, ghrelin, gaseous transmitters, cytokines and prostaglandins. Experimental studies provide evidence that elevation of fluid osmolality, which is the most frequent cause of thirst, influences function of the voltage-gated sodium channel and calcium-dependent kinase II subunit alpha. Regulation of thirst may be inappropriate in old age and under some pathological conditions including infections, heart failure, diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus, and psychogenic disorders. The molecular background of the abnormal regulation of thirst in the clinical disorders is not yet sufficiently recognized and requires further examination.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26167850","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,14]],"date-time":"2025-08-14T15:44:21Z","timestamp":1755186261000},"page":"7850","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Neurochemical Aspects of the Role of Thirst in Body Fluid Homeostasis and Their Significance in Health and Disease: A Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3761-508X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ewa","family":"Szczepanska-Sadowska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R149","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.1990.258.1.R149","article-title":"Hypertonic and hypovolemic stimulation of thirst in pigs","volume":"258","author":"Anderson","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.1976.74","article-title":"The physiological basis of thirst","volume":"10","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1976","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2821-8","article-title":"The cellular basis of distinct thirst modalities","volume":"588","author":"Pool","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suwa, Y., Kunimatsu, J., Kamata, A., Matsumoto, M., and Yamada, H.A. (2024). Method for Evaluating Hunger and Thirst in Monkeys by Measuring Blood Ghrelin and Osmolality Levels. eNeuro, 11.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.11.06.565780"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1998.78.3.583","article-title":"Angiotensin, thirst, and sodium appetite","volume":"78","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1998","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"niae034","DOI":"10.1093\/nc\/niae034","article-title":"Making sense of feelings","volume":"2024","author":"Key","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Conscious."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Armstrong, L.E., Giersch, G.E.W., Dunn, L., Fiol, A., Mu\u00f1oz, C.X., and Lee, E.C. (2020). Inputs to Thirst and Drinking during Water Restriction and Rehydration. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12092554"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00017.2003","article-title":"Neuroendocrine control of body fluid metabolism","volume":"84","author":"Elias","year":"2004","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"15","article-title":"Bengt Andersson\u2019s pioneering demonstration of the hypothalamic \u201cdrinking area\u201d and the subsequent osmoreceptor\/sodium receptor controversy","volume":"583","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1989","journal-title":"Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/167.5.432","article-title":"Death by water intoxication","volume":"167","author":"Gardner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mil. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.schres.2008.09.029","article-title":"Mortality over a 20-year period in patients with primary polydipsia associated with schizophrenia: A retrospective study","volume":"107","author":"Hawken","year":"2009","journal-title":"Schizophr. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-1716.1955.tb01213.x","article-title":"A further study of polydipsia evoked by hypothalamic stimulation in the goat","volume":"33","author":"Andersson","year":"1955","journal-title":"Acta Physiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2015.08.044","article-title":"Importance of the central nucleus of the amygdala on sodium intake caused by deactivation of lateral parabrachial nucleus","volume":"1625","author":"Andrade","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Becker, C.A., Flaisch, T., Renner, B., and Schupp, H.T. (2017). From Thirst to Satiety: The Anterior Mid-Cingulate Cortex and Right Posterior Insula Indicate Dynamic Changes in Incentive Value. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00234"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2005.05.009","article-title":"GABA(A) receptor activation in the lateral parabrachial nucleus induces water and hypertonic NaCl intake","volume":"134","author":"Callera","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"169","article-title":"Osmotic thirst suppression elicited by electrical stimulation of the basal forebrain in the dog","volume":"86","author":"Sadowski","year":"1978","journal-title":"Arch. Int. Physiol. Biochim."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"509","article-title":"Brain and cardiovascular diseases: Common neurogenic background of cardiovascular, metabolic and inflammatory diseases","volume":"61","author":"Ufnal","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1325","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00391.2004","article-title":"Effects of forebrain circumventricular organ ablation on drinking or salt appetite after sodium depletion or hypernatremia","volume":"287","author":"Fitts","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R831","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.2001.280.3.R831","article-title":"Osmoregulation in water-deprived rats drinking hypertonic saline: Effect of area postrema lesions","volume":"280","author":"Stricker","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5692","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-19191-0","article-title":"Distinct CCK-positive SFO neurons are involved in persistent or transient suppression of water intake","volume":"11","author":"Matsuda","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1974.sp010567","article-title":"Drinking and antidiuresis elicited by isoprenaline in the dog","volume":"239","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.68.2.332","article-title":"Hypothalamic alpha-and beta-adrenergic systems regulate both thirst and hunger in the rat","volume":"68","author":"Leibowitz","year":"1971","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1390","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00869.2007","article-title":"The trajectory of sensory pathways from the lamina terminalis to the insular and cingulate cortex: A neuroanatomical framework for the generation of thirst","volume":"294","author":"Hollis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2020.09.011","article-title":"A Novel Cortical Mechanism for Top-Down Control of Water Intake","volume":"30","author":"Zhao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/0361-9230(85)90209-6","article-title":"The periventricular anteroventral third ventricle (AV3V): Its relationship with the subfornical organ and neural systems involved in maintaining body fluid homeostasis","volume":"15","author":"Johnson","year":"1985","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1006\/frne.1997.0153","article-title":"The neuroendocrinology of thirst and salt appetite: Visceral sensory signals and mechanisms of central integration","volume":"18","author":"Johnson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30744","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2009233117","article-title":"Thirst recruits phasic dopamine signaling through subfornical organ neurons","volume":"117","author":"Hsu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7397","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.93.14.7397","article-title":"Hypothalamic integration of body fluid regulation","volume":"93","author":"Denton","year":"1996","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5304","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.96.9.5304","article-title":"Neuroimaging of genesis and satiation of thirst and an interoceptor-driven theory of origins of primary consciousness","volume":"96","author":"Denton","year":"1999","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R623","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00817.2010","article-title":"Cortical activation and lamina terminalis functional connectivity during thirst and drinking in humans","volume":"301","author":"Farrell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"786","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1717646115","article-title":"Influence of anterior midcingulate cortex on drinking behavior during thirst and following satiation","volume":"115","author":"Saker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1159\/000488233","article-title":"Vasopressin and the Regulation of Thirst","volume":"72","author":"Bichet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Lv, F., Yin, W., Gao, Z., Liu, H., Wang, Z., and Sun, J. (2023). The organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis and subfornical organ: Regulation of thirst. Front. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1223836"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2069","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2208-19.2020","article-title":"Integration of Hypernatremia and Angiotensin II by the Organum Vasculosum of the Lamina Terminalis Regulates Thirst","volume":"40","author":"Kinsman","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15970","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.15970","article-title":"Brain sodium sensing for regulation of thirst, salt appetite, and blood pressure","volume":"12","author":"Hiyama","year":"2024","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7743","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.20-20-07743.2000","article-title":"Nav2\/NaG channel is involved in control of salt-intake behavior in the CNS","volume":"20","author":"Watanabe","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marciante, A.B., Wang, L.A., Farmer, G.E., and Cunningham, J.T. (2019). Selectively Inhibiting the Median Preoptic Nucleus Attenuates Angiotensin II and Hyperosmotic-Induced Drinking Behavior and Vasopressin Release in Adult Male Rats. Fitts eNeuro, 6.","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0473-18.2019"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14669","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1420-11.2011","article-title":"Hypertonicity sensing in organum vasculosum lamina terminalis neurons: A mechanical process involving TRPV1 but not TRPV4","volume":"31","author":"Ciura","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R669","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00270.2013","article-title":"Integration of thermal and osmotic regulation of water homeostasis: The role of TRPV channels","volume":"305","author":"Sladek","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2015.08.061","article-title":"\u0394N-TRPV1: A Molecular Co-detector of Body Temperature and Osmotic Stress","volume":"13","author":"Zaelzer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1736","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00043.2005","article-title":"Antidipsogenic effects of a TRPV4 agonist, 4alpha-phorbol 12,13-didecanoate, injected into the cerebroventricle","volume":"290","author":"Tsushima","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1038\/nature18950","article-title":"Thirst neurons anticipate the homeostatic consequences of eating and drinking","volume":"537","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201901111R","article-title":"Keeping time in the lamina terminalis: Novel oscillator properties of forebrain sensory circumventricular organs","volume":"34","author":"Northeast","year":"2020","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2416","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0511019103","article-title":"Unique, common, and interacting cortical correlates of thirst and pain","volume":"103","author":"Farrell","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1136","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00075.2003","article-title":"Corticotropin-releasing hormone in the lateral parabrachial nucleus inhibits sodium appetite in rats","volume":"290","author":"Silva","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.2183\/pjab.98.016","article-title":"Central regulation of body fluid homeostasis","volume":"98","author":"Noda","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. Jpn. Acad. Ser. B Phys. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1037\/a0034948","article-title":"Dissociation of thirst and sodium appetite in the furo\/cap model of extracellular dehydration and a role for N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in the sensitization of sodium appetite","volume":"127","author":"Hurley","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1037\/h0030215","article-title":"Sodium appetite in rats after apparent recovery from acute sodium deficiency","volume":"73","author":"Jalowiec","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"R1493","article-title":"Sodium appetite, thirst, and body fluid regulation in humans during rehydration without sodium replacement","volume":"266","author":"Takamata","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am J Physiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1970.sp009220","article-title":"Drinking induced by injection of angiotensin into the brain of the rat","volume":"210","author":"Epstein","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1971.sp009433","article-title":"The effect on drinking of peptide precursors and of shorter chain peptide fragments of angiotensin II injected into the rat\u2019s diencephalon","volume":"214","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1113\/expphysiol.1992.sp003643","article-title":"Intracerebroventricular angiotensin II-induced thirst and sodium appetite in rat are blocked by the AT1 receptor antagonist, Losartan (DuP 753), but not by the AT2 antagonist, CGP 42112B","volume":"77","author":"Beresford","year":"1992","journal-title":"Exp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1978.sp012244","article-title":"Drinking and haemodynamic changes induced in the dog by intracranial injection of components of the renin-angiotensin system","volume":"276","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1978","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1113\/expphysiol.1993.sp003724","article-title":"The effect of the putative AT2 agonist, p-aminophenylalanine6 angiotensin II, on thirst and sodium appetite in rats","volume":"78","author":"Cooney","year":"1993","journal-title":"Exp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2009.10.018","article-title":"Ontogenetic role of angiontensin-converting enzyme in rats: Thirst and sodium appetite evaluation","volume":"99","author":"Mecawi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1980.sp013478","article-title":"Drinking and antidiuresis in response to reductions in venous return in the dog: Neural and endocrine mechanisms","volume":"308","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1981.sp013959","article-title":"Renin-dependence of drinking induced by partial aortic obstruction in the dog","volume":"320","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(92)90749-Y","article-title":"Central administration of atrial natriuretic peptide suppresses sodium and water intake of sheep","volume":"579","author":"Weisinger","year":"1992","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"766","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplegacy.1974.227.4.766","article-title":"Blood antidiuretic hormone level and osmotic reactivity of thirst mechanism in dogs","volume":"227","author":"Kozlowski","year":"1974","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1016\/0196-9781(87)90128-8","article-title":"Thirst impairment elicited by intraventricular administration of vasopressin antagonists","volume":"8","author":"Sobocinska","year":"1987","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2124","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ki.5000432","article-title":"Vasopressin receptor antagonists","volume":"69","author":"Greenberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Kidney Int."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1019","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00033.2004","article-title":"Downward resetting of the osmotic threshold for thirst in patients with SIADH","volume":"287","author":"Smith","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2015.11.005","article-title":"Diagnosing and Treating the Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion","volume":"129","author":"Verbalis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-physiol-020518-114556","article-title":"Regulation of Thirst and Vasopressin Release","volume":"81","author":"Bichet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.EJ24-0058","article-title":"Autoimmunity related to anti-Nax and anti-ZSCAN1 autoantibodies in adipsic hypernatremia","volume":"71","year":"2024","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2019.04.039","article-title":"Temporally and Spatially Distinct Thirst Satiation Signals","volume":"103","author":"Augustine","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4575","article-title":"The cellular mechanism for water detection in the mammalian taste system","volume":"20","author":"Zocchi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1113\/expphysiol.2007.039891","article-title":"Central regulation of sodium appetite","volume":"93","author":"Geerling","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1199","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00715.2005","article-title":"Inhibition of thirst when dehydrated rats drink water or saline","volume":"290","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peyrot des Gachons, C., Avrillier, J., Gleason, M., Algarra, L., Zhang, S., Mura, E., Nagai, H., and Breslin, P.A. (2016). Oral Cooling and Carbonation Increase the Perception of Drinking and Thirst Quenching in Thirsty Adults. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162261"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aav3932","article-title":"Thirst regulates motivated behavior through modulation of brain wide neural population dynamics","volume":"364","author":"Allen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"R1431","article-title":"Cholecystokinin actions in the parabrachial nucleus: Effects on thirst and salt appetite","volume":"275","author":"Menani","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2023.113619","article-title":"Two parabrachial Cck neurons involved in the feedback control of thirst or salt appetite","volume":"43","author":"Matsuda","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16417","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3267-14.2014","article-title":"Endogenous glucagon-like peptide-1 reduces drinking behavior and is differentially engaged by water and food intakes in rats","volume":"34","author":"McKay","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25488","article-title":"Hierarchical neural architecture underlying thirst regulation","volume":"555","author":"Augustine","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2022.105943","article-title":"Control of water intake by a pathway from the nucleus of the solitary tract to the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus","volume":"172","author":"Volcko","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102-024-01451-7","article-title":"GLP-1 receptor agonists may enhance the effects of desmopressin in individuals with AVP deficiency: A case series and proposed mechanism","volume":"27","author":"Nakhleh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pituitary"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R637","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00395.2006","article-title":"Obestatin acts in brain to inhibit thirst","volume":"292","author":"Samson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1113\/expphysiol.2011.059535","article-title":"Ghrelin reduces hypertonic saline intake in a variety of natriorexigenic conditions","volume":"96","author":"Mietlicki","year":"2011","journal-title":"Exp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.113.071381","article-title":"The effects of high-intensity exercise on neural responses to images of food","volume":"99","author":"Crabtree","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-19-0027","article-title":"Acute intravenous acyl ghrelin infusion induces thirst but does not affect sodium excretion: Two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover studies in hypopituitary patients","volume":"181","author":"Vestergaard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1137","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-9384(95)02180-9","article-title":"Drinking and blood pressure responses to central injection of L-NAME in conscious rats","volume":"59","author":"Liu","year":"1996","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3908(92)90038-Q","article-title":"Evidence that nitric oxide modulates drinking behaviour","volume":"31","author":"Calapai","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9384(97)00522-2","article-title":"Effects of L-arginine on angiotensin II-related water and salt intakes","volume":"63","author":"Roth","year":"1998","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2014.11.008","article-title":"Effects of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) on water intake and vasopressin and oxytocin secretion induced by fluid deprivation","volume":"67","author":"Coletti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.npep.2005.11.001","article-title":"Inhibition of water intake by the central administration of IL-1beta in rats: Role of the central opioid system","volume":"40","author":"Luz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuropeptides"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1016\/0031-9384(92)90319-W","article-title":"Intraperitoneal administration of recombinant human interleukin-1 beta inhibits osmotic thirst in the rat","volume":"51","author":"Osaka","year":"1992","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.nu.02.070182.000445","article-title":"Physiological and pharmacological aspects of the control of hunger and thirst","volume":"2","author":"Andersson","year":"1982","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1961.sp006809","article-title":"Drinking by rats depleted of body fluid without increase in osmotic pressure","volume":"159","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1961","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"R558","article-title":"Angiotensin does contribute to drinking induced by caval ligation in rat","volume":"243","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_92","first-page":"269","article-title":"Suppression of thirst in dogs with arteriovenous fistula","volume":"89","author":"Ruka","year":"1981","journal-title":"Arch. Int. Physiol. Biochim."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"R452","article-title":"Pulmonary vein-atrial junction stretch receptors and the inhibition of drinking","volume":"242","author":"Fitzsimons","year":"1982","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1718","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00651.2001","article-title":"Arterial baroreceptors mediate the inhibitory effect of acute increases in arterial blood pressure on thirst","volume":"282","author":"Stocker","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R238","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00486.2014","article-title":"Mechanisms of brain renin angiotensin system-induced drinking and blood pressure: Importance of the subfornical organ","volume":"308","author":"Coble","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplegacy.1974.226.1.155","article-title":"Plasma ADH increase and thirst suppression elicited by preoptic heating in the dog","volume":"226","year":"1974","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00581831","article-title":"Osmotic thirst suppression during 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) hyperthermia in the dog","volume":"355","year":"1975","journal-title":"Pflugers Arch."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"673","article-title":"Thirst and renal excretion of water and electrolytes during pyrogen fever in dogs","volume":"87","year":"1979","journal-title":"Arch. Int. Physiol. Biochim."},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"137","article-title":"Evidence that prostaglandins within preoptic area (POA) may mediate the antidipsogenic effect of Escherichia coli endotoxin in the rat","volume":"17","author":"Matera","year":"1985","journal-title":"Circ. Shock"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-2999(97)01049-2","article-title":"Melatonin effects on inhibition of thirst and fever induced by lipopolysaccharide in rat","volume":"331","author":"Nava","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1016\/S0192-0561(00)00058-8","article-title":"Repeated lipopolysaccharide administration produces tolerance to anorexia and fever but not to inhibition of thirst in rat","volume":"22","author":"Nava","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1054\/plef.1999.0032","article-title":"Role of centrally administered melatonin and inhibitors of COX and NOS in LPS-induced hyperthermia and adipsia","volume":"60","author":"Raghavendra","year":"1999","journal-title":"Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12642","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.12642","article-title":"Heat acclimation and thirst in rats","volume":"3","author":"Barney","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosinger, A.Y., Bethancourt, H.J., Swanson, Z.S., Lopez, K., Kenney, W.L., Huanca, T., Conde, E., Nzunza, R., Ndiema, E., and Braun, D.R. (2022). Cross-cultural variation in thirst perception in hot-humid and hot-arid environments: Evidence from two small-scale populations. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 34.","DOI":"10.1002\/ajhb.23715"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taim, B.C., Suppiah, H.T., Wee, J., Lee, M., Lee, J.K.W., and Chia, M. (2021). Palatable Flavoured Fluids without Carbohydrates and Electrolytes Do Not Enhance Voluntary Fluid Consumption in Male Collegiate Basketball Players in the Heat. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13124197"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1615","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1994.76.4.1615","article-title":"Body fluid balance in dehydrated healthy older men: Thirst and renal osmoregulation","volume":"76","author":"Mack","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_107","first-page":"R166","article-title":"Reduced osmotic thirst in healthy elderly men","volume":"261","author":"Phillips","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"R148","article-title":"Mechanism of attenuated thirst in aging: Role of central volume receptors","volume":"272","author":"Stachenfeld","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Begg, D.P., Sinclair, A.J., and Weisinger, R.S. (2020). Impaired Fluid Intake, but Not Sodium Appetite, in Aged Rats Is Mediated by the Cyclooxygenase-Prostaglandin E2 Pathway. Front. Aging Neurosci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2020.00019"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2004.02.030","article-title":"Reduced thirst in old, thermally dehydrated rats","volume":"81","author":"Whyte","year":"2004","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3450","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0511099103","article-title":"Differential effects of aging on fluid intake in response to hypovolemia, hypertonicity, and hormonal stimuli in Munich Wistar rats","volume":"103","author":"McKinley","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1016\/0197-4580(93)90033-8","article-title":"Angiotensin II and fluid ingestion in old rats","volume":"14","author":"Silver","year":"1993","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R149","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00118.2009","article-title":"Hypotension- and osmotically induced thirst in old Brown Norway rats","volume":"297","author":"Thunhorst","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R317","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00368.2002","article-title":"Thirst and salt appetite responses in young and old Brown Norway rats","volume":"284","author":"Thunhorst","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Friedrichsen, M., Lythell, C., Waldr\u00e9us, N., Jaarsma, T., \u00c5ngstr\u00f6m, H., Milovanovic, M., Karlsson, M., Milberg, A., Thulesius, H., and Hedman, C. (2023). Ethical challenges around thirst in end-of-life care -experiences of palliative care physicians. BMC Med. Ethics, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-023-00943-8"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1975.sp010799","article-title":"The relationship between elevated water intake and oedema associated with congestive cardiac failure in the dog","volume":"244","author":"Ramsay","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R1203","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00098.2003","article-title":"Increased thirst and vasopressin secretion after myocardial infarction in rats","volume":"285","author":"Menadue","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000020009.30736.3F","article-title":"Neurohormonal activation and the chronic heart failure syndrome in adults with congenital heart disease","volume":"106","author":"Bolger","year":"2002","journal-title":"Circulation."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvp160","article-title":"Brain tumour necrosis factor-alpha modulates neurotransmitters in hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus in heart failure","volume":"83","author":"Kang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1016\/0735-1097(94)90001-9","article-title":"Prognostic value of neurohumoral activation in patients with an acute myocardial infarction: Effect of captopril","volume":"24","author":"Rouleau","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrtlng.2020.08.002","article-title":"Thirst and factors associated with frequent thirst in patients with heart failure in Spain","volume":"50","author":"Eng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heart Lung"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrtlng.2022.02.002","article-title":"Thirst and factors associated with thirst in hospitalized patients with heart failure in China","volume":"53","author":"Gong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heart Lung"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1177\/1474515114541729","article-title":"Isolating the benefits of fluid restriction in patients with heart failure: A pilot study","volume":"14","author":"Reilly","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Cardiovasc. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjhf\/hfs174","article-title":"Thirst in heart failure: A systematic literature review","volume":"15","author":"Hahn","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1097\/JCN.0000000000001175","article-title":"Prevalence and Predictors of Thirst in Patients With Heart Failure","volume":"40","author":"Younes","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2181","DOI":"10.1002\/ehf2.13960","article-title":"Thirst in stable heart failure patients; time to reconsider fluid restriction and prescribed diuretics","volume":"9","author":"Jaarsma","year":"2022","journal-title":"ESC Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.13866","article-title":"Diagnosis and management of central diabetes insipidus in adults","volume":"90","author":"Garrahy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1111\/imj.13627","article-title":"Polyuria-polydipsia syndrome: A diagnostic challenge","volume":"48","author":"Nigro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Intern. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(22)00219-4","article-title":"Central diabetes insipidus from a patient\u2019s perspective: Management, psychological co-morbidities, and renaming of the condition: Results from an international web-based survey","volume":"10","author":"Atila","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfab278","article-title":"Vaptans or voluntary increased hydration to protect the kidney: How do they compare?","volume":"38","author":"Bankir","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3000605241235747","DOI":"10.1177\/03000605241235747","article-title":"Persistent hypernatremia secondary to adipsic central diabetes insipidus in a patient with herpes-induced meningoencephalitis and COVID-19 infection: A case report","volume":"52","author":"Cherchir","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1087","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.EJ23-0643","article-title":"Hyponatremia due to preserved non-osmotic arginine vasopressin secretion in adipsic diabetes insipidus: A case report with review of literature","volume":"71","author":"Seki","year":"2024","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.EJ13-0368","article-title":"Adipsia increases risk of death in patients with central diabetes insipidus","volume":"61","author":"Arima","year":"2014","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.5414\/CN106617","article-title":"Severe hyperosmolarity and hypernatremia in an adipsic young woman","volume":"76","author":"Latcha","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Nephrol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eprac.2023.11.012","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics of Adipsic Diabetes Insipidus","volume":"30","author":"Yang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Endocr. Pract."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.K07E-132","article-title":"Pathogenesis of chronic hypernatremia with dehydrated and non-dehydrated states in hypothalamic space-occupying lesions","volume":"55","author":"Hayashi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ando.2013.10.002","article-title":"Diabetes insipidus","volume":"74","author":"Leroy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tran, V., Flores, J., Sheldon, M., Pena, C., and Nugent, K. (2025). Fluid and Electrolyte Disorders in Traumatic Brain Injury: Clinical Implications and Management Strategies. J. Clin. Med., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14030756"},{"key":"ref_139","unstructured":"Genuth, S.M., Palmer, J.P., Nathan, D.M., Cowie, C.C., Casagrande, S.S., Menke, A., Cissell, M.A., Eberhardt, M.S., Meigs, J.B., and Gregg, E.W. (2018). Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes. Diabetes in America, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (US). [3rd ed.]. Chapter 1."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2022.106429","article-title":"Disinhibition augments thirst perception from two dehydrating stimuli in men","volume":"182","author":"Chang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-8227(05)80033-6","article-title":"Thirst and plasma levels of vasopressin, angiotensin II and atrial natriuretic peptide in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus","volume":"11","author":"Kamoi","year":"1991","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1042\/cs0740599","article-title":"Osmoregulation of thirst and vasopressin secretion in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus","volume":"74","author":"Thompson","year":"1988","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-2977(01)00083-3","article-title":"Hypernatremia in a non insulin dependent (type 2) diabetic patient with central diabetes insipidus","volume":"58","author":"Kavelaars","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neth. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wagner, B., Ing, T.S., Roumelioti, M.E., Sam, R., Argyropoulos, C.P., Lew, S.Q., Unruh, M.L., Dorin, R.I., Degnan, J.H., and Tzamaloukas, A.H. (2024). Hypernatremia in Hyperglycemia: Clinical Features and Relationship to Fractional Changes in Body Water and Monovalent Cations during Its Development. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13071957"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI110121","article-title":"Increased thirst and plasma arginine vasopressin levels during 2-deoxy-D-glucose-induced glucoprivation in humans","volume":"67","author":"Thompson","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1038\/s41574-023-00852-1","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in diabetes mellitus and endocrine diseases\u2014What can we expect?","volume":"19","author":"Oikonomakos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2111315","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.11315","article-title":"Development and Validation of a Machine Learning Model Using Administrative Health Data to Predict Onset of Type 2 Diabetes","volume":"4","author":"Ravaut","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/10673220801924308","article-title":"Hyponatremia in psychiatric patients: Update on evaluation and management","volume":"16","author":"Siegel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Harv. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1611","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.npp.1301282","article-title":"Neuroendocrine responses to a cold pressor stimulus in polydipsic hyponatremic and in matched schizophrenic patients","volume":"32","author":"Goldman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_150","first-page":"e47719","article-title":"Treatment of Psychogenic Polydipsia and Hyponatremia: A Case Report","volume":"15","author":"Hurwit","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-1781(00)00243-2","article-title":"Roles of arginine vasopressin and atrial natriuretic peptide in polydipsia-hyponatremia of schizophrenic patients","volume":"101","author":"Kawai","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_152","first-page":"e64600","article-title":"Hyponatremia Secondary to Psychogenic Polydipsia and Schizophrenia: A Case Report","volume":"16","author":"Nickles","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_153","first-page":"e3645","article-title":"Hyponatremia Presenting with Recurrent Mania","volume":"10","author":"Parag","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1037\/a0014481","article-title":"Neuropsychological impairment in patients with schizophrenia and evidence of hyponatremia and polydipsia","volume":"23","author":"Torres","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1214","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.1986.00360180234035","article-title":"Severe hypernatremia in a patient with psychiatric illness","volume":"146","author":"Farley","year":"1986","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liebrand, M., Rebsamen, M., Nakamura-Utsunomiya, A., von den Driesch, L., K\u00f6ck, P., Caccia, J., Hamann, C., Wiest, R., Kaess, M., and Walther, S. (2023). Case report: Psychosis and catatonia in an adolescent patient with adipsic hypernatremia and autoantibodies against the subfornical organ. Front. Psychiatry, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1206226"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5427","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2019-01446","article-title":"Hypernatremic Hydrophobic Transient Adipsia Without Organic or Severe Psychiatric Disorder","volume":"104","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_158","first-page":"e64281","article-title":"Challenges in Diagnosing and Managing Severe Hypernatremia in Patients With Major Depressive Disorder: A Case Report","volume":"16","author":"Nguyen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2023.114110","article-title":"Chronic water restriction reduces sensitivity to brain stimulation reward in male and female rats","volume":"263","author":"Donka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pearlstein, H., Dayno, A., Zook, J., Crowley, J., Alter, C., Gutmark-Little, I., and McCormack, S.E. (2025). Management of Arginine Vasopressin Deficiency (Central Diabetes Insipidus) in Neonates and Infants. Horm. Res. Paediatr., 1\u201320.","DOI":"10.1159\/000547155"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1111\/jan.16250","article-title":"Thirst symptoms in patients with heart failure: An integrative review","volume":"81","author":"Zheng","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Adv. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(01)02303-1","article-title":"The epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) is related to the hypertonicity-induced Na(+) conductance in rat hepatocytes","volume":"494","author":"Wehner","year":"2001","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5317","DOI":"10.1113\/JP280309","article-title":"Submucosal enteric neurons of the cavine distal colon are sensitive to hypoosmolar stimuli","volume":"598","author":"Kollmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Physiol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/16\/7850\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:27:14Z","timestamp":1760034434000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/16\/7850"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,14]]},"references-count":163,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26167850"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26167850","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,14]]}}}