{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:49:30Z","timestamp":1787028570517,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":328,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756166400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>One hundred and eighteen years have passed since Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) was first diagnosed by Alois Alzheimer as a multifactorial and complex neurodegenerative disorder with psychiatric components. It is inaugurated by a cascade of events initiating from amnesic-type memory impairment leading to the gradual loss of cognitive and executive capacities. Pathologically, there is overwhelming evidence that clumps of misfolded amyloid-\u03b2 (A\u03b2) and hyperphosphorylated tau protein aggregate in the brain. These pathological processes lead to neuronal loss, brain atrophy, and gliosis culminating in neurodegeneration and fueling AD. Thus, at a basic level, abnormality in the brain\u2019s protein function is observed, causing disruption in the brain network and loss of neural connectivity. Nevertheless, AD is an aging disorder caused by a combination of age-related changes and genetic and environmental factors that affect the brain over time. Its mysterious pathology seems not to be limited to senile plaques (A\u03b2) and neurofibrillary tangles (tau), but to a plethora of substantial and biological processes, which have also emerged in its pathogenesis, such as a breakdown of the blood\u2013brain barrier (BBB), patients carrying the gene variant APOE4, and the immuno-senescence of the immune system. Furthermore, type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and metabolic syndrome (MS) have also been observed to be early markers that may provoke pathogenic pathways that lead to or aggravate AD progression and pathology. There are numerous substantial AD features that require more understanding, such as chronic neuroinflammation, decreased glucose utilization and energy metabolism, as well as brain insulin resistance (IR). Herein, we aim to broaden our understanding and to connect the dots of the multiple comorbidities and their cumulative synergistic effects on BBB dysfunction and AD pathology. We shed light on the path-physiological modifications in the cerebral vasculature that may contribute to AD pathology and cognitive decline prior to clinically detectable changes in amyloid-beta (A\u03b2) and tau pathology, diagnostic biomarkers of AD, neuroimmune involvement, and the role of APOE4 allele and AD\u2013IR pathogenic link\u2014the shared genetics and metabolomic biomarkers between AD and IR disorders. Investment in future research brings us closer to knowing the pathogenesis of AD and paves the way to building prevention and treatment strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26178253","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T14:43:18Z","timestamp":1756219398000},"page":"8253","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Navigation Between Alzheimer\u2019s Disease (AD) and Its Various Pathophysiological Trajectories: The Pathogenic Link to Neuroimmunology\u2014Genetics and Neuroinflammation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8185-0688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdalla","family":"Bowirrat","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Adelson School of Medicine, Department of Molecular Biology, Ariel University, Ariel 40700, Israel"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Texas Tech University Health Science Center, Midland, TX 79430, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8116-4565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Albert","family":"Pinhasov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Adelson School of Medicine, Department of Molecular Biology, Ariel University, Ariel 40700, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aia","family":"Bowirrat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Hasharon Hospital, Rabin Medical Center, Tel Aviv University, Petah-Tikva 40700, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5586-5114","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rajendra","family":"Badgaiyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Texas Tech University Health Science Center, Midland, TX 79430, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"146","article-title":"Uber einen eigenartigen schweren Erkrankungsprozeb der Hirnrincle","volume":"25","author":"Alzheimer","year":"1906","journal-title":"Neurol. 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