{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T19:19:30Z","timestamp":1790795970432,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,1]],"date-time":"2025-09-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756684800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Korean Government (MSIT)","award":["2023R1A2C2003446"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023R1A2C2003446"]}]},{"name":"Korean Government (MSIT)","award":["RS-2023-00225239"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-00225239"]}]},{"name":"Korean Government (MSIT)","award":["RS-2025-00573202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2025-00573202"]}]},{"name":"Korean Government (MSIT)","award":["RS-2025-24535069"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2025-24535069"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Health &amp; Welfare","award":["2023R1A2C2003446"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023R1A2C2003446"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Health &amp; Welfare","award":["RS-2023-00225239"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2023-00225239"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Health &amp; Welfare","award":["RS-2025-00573202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2025-00573202"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Health &amp; Welfare","award":["RS-2025-24535069"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RS-2025-24535069"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) represents a paradigmatic genetic disorder with well-characterized hepatic manifestations but relatively underexplored pulmonary implications. While liver involvement has been extensively reviewed, the underlying mechanisms of lung disease progression remain poorly understood, particularly regarding immunological pathways and inflammatory processes. The pathophysiology involves defective alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT) production, including AAT variants that induce neutrophil elastase activity, causing progressive alveolar destruction and sustained inflammation, leading to emphysema, as one of the main components of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). AATD and smoking represent major risk factors for COPD, the third leading cause of death worldwide at present. In AATD patients, neutrophils, which constitute the majority of circulating leukocytes, become dysregulated. Under normal conditions, cells perform essential functions, including phagocytosis and neutrophil extracellular trap formation (NETosis); in AATD, however, they accumulate excessively in alveolar spaces due to impaired elastase control. The accumulation of Z-AAT polymers within epithelial cells creates a pathological cycle, acting as chemoattractants that sustain pro-inflammatory responses and contribute to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease development. In addition, monocytes, representing a smaller fraction of leukocytes, migrate to inflammatory sites and differentiate into macrophages while secreting AAT with anti-inflammatory properties. However, in PiZZ patients, this protective mechanism fails, as polymer accumulation within cells reduces both AAT secretion and the number of protective human leukocyte antigen(HLA)-DR-monocyte subsets. In particular, macrophages demonstrate remarkable plasticity, switching between pro-inflammatory M1 (classically activated macrophages) and tissue-repairing M2 (alternatively activated macrophages) phenotypes based on environmental cues. In AATD, this adaptive capability becomes compromised due to intracellular polymer accumulation, leading to impaired phagocytic function and dysregulated cytokine production and ultimately perpetuating chronic inflammation and progressive tissue damage. Recent advances in induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology have facilitated alveolar epithelial cell (AEC) generation, in addition to the correction of AATD mutations through gene editing systems. Despite the limitations of AAT correction, iPSC-derived organoid models harboring AATD mutations can deliver important insights into disease pathophysiology, while gene editing approaches help demonstrate causality between specific mutations and observed phenotypes. Therefore, in this review, we investigated recent studies that can serve as tools for gene editing and drug development based on recently developed iPSC-related technologies to understand the pathogenesis of AATD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26178504","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]],"date-time":"2025-09-02T15:02:57Z","timestamp":1756825377000},"page":"8504","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Next-Generation Regenerative Therapies for Alpha-1 Antitrypsin Deficiency: Molecular Pathogenesis to Clinical Translation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Se-Ran","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6710-6964","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyung-Ryong","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, College of Dentistry, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201308-1458OC","article-title":"Z alpha1-antitrypsin confers a proinflammatory phenotype that contributes to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","volume":"189","author":"Alam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. 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