{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T18:26:10Z","timestamp":1787163970345,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":153,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]],"date-time":"2025-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756771200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005888","name":"Medical University of Lodz, Poland","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["503\/1-033-01\/503-11-001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["503\/1-033-01\/503-11-001"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005888","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The diagnosis and monitoring of progressive multiple sclerosis (PMS) require further development of fast and effective clinical tools. Relations between MRI-based brain atrophy measures and cognitive impairment in people with primary progressive and secondary progressive MS (PwPPMS, n = 20 and PwSPMS, n = 19, respectively) were investigated in a prospective study with follow-up after a mean 14.97 \u00b1 4.67 months. MRI analysis showed that at baseline and follow-up in PwSPMS, the left thalamic fraction and corpus callosum fraction were significantly lower than in PwPPMS (baseline: 0.39 \u00b1 0.04 vs. 0.44 \u00b1 0.06, p = 0.0203 and 0.26 \u00b1 0.05 vs. 0.30 \u00b1 0.05, p = 0.0097; respectively and follow-up: 0.40 \u00b1 0.04 vs. 0.44 \u00b1 0.07, p = 0.0443 and 0.25 \u00b1 0.06 vs. 0.30 \u00b1 0.05, p = 0.0103, respectively). In contrast, only at baseline, PwPPMS had a significantly lower cerebellar white matter fraction (CWMF) than PwSPMS (1.83 \u00b1 0.20 vs. 2.01 \u00b1 0.24, p = 0.0132). No other significant differences were observed in the MRI fractions at either study time point or in the changes of the MRI fractions between the PwPPMS and PwSPMS. However, a significant decline in the right putaminal fraction was found during observation in PwSPMS (0.332% \u00b1 0.05% vs. 0.328% \u00b1 0.05%, p = 0.0479). Cognitive test scores and their changes did not differ significantly between the subgroups. Declines in the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test Revised in the whole PMS group (18.74 \u00b1 7.43 vs. 17.03 \u00b1 7.61, p = 0.0209) and in PwPPMS (19.50 \u00b1 8.29 vs. 17.20 \u00b1 7.72, p = 0.0338), as well as in the Brief International Cognitive Assessment for Multiple Sclerosis in PwPPMS (1.05 \u00b1 0.89 vs. 1.25 \u00b1 1.02, p = 0.0421), were observed. In both PwPMS and PwPPMS, a worsening on the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) was associated with the reduction of fractions of white matter, cerebellum and right thalamus. SDMT performance also correlated with both gray matter fraction (GMF) and CWMF in the whole group, and with cerebellar gray matter fraction (CGMF) in PwPPMS. In PwSPMS, only Stroop Color and Word Test scores correlated with GMF and CGMF. In conclusion, subtle differences between PwPPMS and PwSPMS were detected both in MRI and neuropsychological parameters. Thus, our results indicate the need for a multicomponent attempt in characterizing progression in different clinical courses of MS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26178523","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]],"date-time":"2025-09-02T15:02:57Z","timestamp":1756825377000},"page":"8523","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Brain Atrophy and Cognitive Impairment in Primary and Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis Cohort\u2014Similar Progressive MS Phenotype"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9863-2708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bartosz","family":"Gajewski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Medical University of Lodz, Kopcinskiego 22, 90-153 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5806-374X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"Siger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Medical University of Lodz, Kopcinskiego 22, 90-153 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7594-4194","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iwona","family":"Karli\u0144ska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Medical University of Lodz, Kopcinskiego 22, 90-153 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Igor A.","family":"Bednarski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Medical University of Lodz, Kopcinskiego 22, 90-153 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6779-308X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariola","family":"\u015awiderek-Matysiak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Medical University of Lodz, Kopcinskiego 22, 90-153 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2582-1708","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariusz","family":"Stasio\u0142ek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Medical University of Lodz, Kopcinskiego 22, 90-153 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-052920-040318","article-title":"The Immune Response in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"17","author":"Farez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000000560","article-title":"Defining the Clinical Course of Multiple Sclerosis: The 2013 Revisions","volume":"83","author":"Lublin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000195","article-title":"Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"28","author":"Ontaneda","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458502008001155","article-title":"The Natural History of Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis: Observations from the London Study Group","volume":"8","author":"Rice","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24747","article-title":"Long-Term Evolution of Multiple Sclerosis Disability in the Treatment Era","volume":"80","author":"Cree","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458519868990","article-title":"Risk of Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis: A Longitudinal Study","volume":"26","author":"Fambiatos","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e19598","DOI":"10.2196\/19598","article-title":"Gaining First Insights on Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis Patients Treated with Siponimod in Clinical Routine: Protocol of the Noninterventional Study AMASIA","volume":"9","author":"Ziemssen","year":"2020","journal-title":"JMIR Res. Protoc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The Lancet Regional Health\u2014Europe (2024). Is the Field of Multiple Sclerosis Ready for a Biologically Driven Continuum Framework?. Lancet Reg. Health-Eur., 44, 101054.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanepe.2024.101054"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"100977","article-title":"Multiple Sclerosis: Emerging Epidemiological Trends and Redefining the Clinical Course","volume":"44","author":"Portaccio","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health-Eur."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-025-12917-4","article-title":"Towards a Biological View of Multiple Sclerosis from Early Subtle to Clinical Progression: An Expert Opinion","volume":"272","author":"Filippi","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.5603\/pjnns.98592","article-title":"Clinical and Therapeutic Challenges of Smouldering Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"58","author":"Niedziela","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Neurochir. Pol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stavropoulou De Lorenzo, S., Bakirtzis, C., Konstantinidou, N., Kesidou, E., Parissis, D., Evangelopoulos, M.E., Elsayed, D., Hamdy, E., Said, S., and Grigoriadis, N. (2023). How Early Is Early Multiple Sclerosis?. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13010214"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sandi, D., Fricska-Nagy, Z., Bencsik, K., and V\u00e9csei, L. (2021). Neurodegeneration in Multiple Sclerosis: Symptoms of Silent Progression, Biomarkers and Neuroprotective Therapy\u2014Kynurenines Are Important Players. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26113423"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1177\/1756285617708911","article-title":"MRI in the Assessment and Monitoring of Multiple Sclerosis: An Update on Best Practice","volume":"10","author":"Kaunzner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Neurol. Disord."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2020.4689","article-title":"Diagnosis of Progressive Multiple Sclerosis from the Imaging Perspective\u2014A Review","volume":"78","author":"Filippi","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25145","article-title":"Deep Gray Matter Volume Loss Drives Disability Worsening in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"83","author":"Eshaghi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Inglese, M., Petracca, M., Mormina, E., Achiron, A., Straus-Farber, R., Miron, S., Fabian, M., Krieger, S., Miller, A., and Lublin, F. (2017). Cerebellar Volume as Imaging Outcome in Progressive Multiple Sclerosis. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0176519"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-020-09740-4","article-title":"Volume Loss in the Deep Gray Matter and Thalamic Subnuclei: A Longitudinal Study on Disability Progression in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"267","author":"Magon","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3181a0fee5","article-title":"Cortical Lesions in Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis: A 2-Year Longitudinal MR Study","volume":"72","author":"Calabrese","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458509358090","article-title":"Lesion Enhancement Diminishes with Time in Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"16","author":"Khaleeli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410290111","article-title":"Major Differences in the Dynamics of Primary and Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"29","author":"Thompson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1191\/1352458504ms996oa","article-title":"Progressive Change in Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis Normal-Appearing White Matter: A Serial Diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study","volume":"10","author":"Schmierer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1177\/0284185119852735","article-title":"Diffusion Tensor Imaging of the Normal-Appearing Deep Gray Matter in Primary and Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"61","author":"Woitek","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Radiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/121.4.687","article-title":"Brain and Spinal Cord Abnormalities in Multiple Sclerosis. Correlation between MRI Parameters, Clinical Subtypes and Symptoms","volume":"121","author":"Lycklama","year":"1998","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"76","article-title":"Hypointense Lesions on T1-Weighted Spin-Echo Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Relation to Clinical Characteristics in Subgroups of Patients With Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"58","author":"Jongen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(14)70256-X","article-title":"Pathological Mechanisms in Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"14","author":"Mahad","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awy088","article-title":"Progression of Regional Grey Matter Atrophy in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"141","author":"Eshaghi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2008.04.173","article-title":"A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study of Grey Matter Loss in MS Patients with Different Clinical Phenotypes","volume":"42","author":"Ceccarelli","year":"2008","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1731","DOI":"10.3174\/ajnr.A1659","article-title":"Regional White Matter Atrophy\u2212Based Classification of Multiple Sclerosis in Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Data","volume":"30","author":"Sampat","year":"2009","journal-title":"AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.3390\/neurosci3040048","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis: An Update on Assessment and Management","volume":"3","author":"Portaccio","year":"2022","journal-title":"NeuroSci"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ziccardi, S., Pizzini, F.B., Guandalini, M., Tamanti, A., Cristofori, C., and Calabrese, M. (2022). Making Visible the Invisible: Automatically Measured Global and Regional Brain Volume Is Associated with Cognitive Impairment and Fatigue in Multiple Sclerosis. Bioengineering, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/bioengineering10010041"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1080\/23279095.2022.2112681","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis Phenotypes: Neuropsychological Assessment in a Portuguese Sample","volume":"31","author":"Sousa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol. Adult"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2016.08.008","article-title":"The Association of Cognitive Impairment with Gray Matter Atrophy and Cortical Lesion Load in Clinically Isolated Syndrome","volume":"10","author":"Diker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-020-01045-3","article-title":"Cognitive Dysfunction in the Early Stages of Multiple Sclerosis\u2014How Much and How Important?","volume":"20","author":"Oset","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1988.00520300029013","article-title":"Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia in Patients with Chronic Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"45","author":"Beatty","year":"1988","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"848","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458516665496","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment Predicts Disability Progression and Cortical Thinning in MS: An 8-Year Study","volume":"23","author":"Pitteri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.09.005","article-title":"Distinct Cognitive Impairments in Different Disease Courses of Multiple Sclerosis\u2014A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"83","author":"Johnen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brochet, B., Clavelou, P., Defer, G., De Seze, J., Louapre, C., Magnin, E., Ruet, A., Thomas-Anterion, C., and Vermersch, P. (2022). Cognitive Impairment in Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis: Effect of Disease Duration, Age, and Progressive Phenotype. Brain Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12020183"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1475","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-016-2610-1","article-title":"The Rao\u2019s Brief Repeatable Battery in the Study of Cognition in Different Multiple Sclerosis Phenotypes: Application of Normative Data in a Serbian Population","volume":"37","author":"Dackovic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.903234","article-title":"Composite Marker of Cognitive Dysfunction and Brain Atrophy Is Highly Accurate in Discriminating Between Relapsing-Remitting and Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"23","author":"Kaubrys","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2020.4920","article-title":"Identifying the Distinct Cognitive Phenotypes in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"78","author":"Portaccio","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2022.103108","article-title":"The Network Collapse in Multiple Sclerosis: An Overview of Novel Concepts to Address Disease Dynamics","volume":"35","author":"Schoonheim","year":"2022","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000201238.93586.d9","article-title":"Gray and White Matter Brain Atrophy and Neuropsychological Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"66","author":"Sanfilipo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.21125","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis Is Associated to Different Patterns of Gray Matter Atrophy According to Clinical Phenotype","volume":"32","author":"Riccitelli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458514562440","article-title":"What Drives MRI-Measured Cortical Atrophy in Multiple Sclerosis?","volume":"21","author":"Popescu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"609694","article-title":"Gray Matters in Multiple Sclerosis: Cognitive Impairment and Structural MRI","volume":"2014","author":"Messina","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Int."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1038\/s41583-018-0053-9","article-title":"Multiple Sclerosis and Cognition: Synaptic Failure and Network Dysfunction","volume":"19","author":"Portaccio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acad070","article-title":"Associations Between Cognitive Impairment and Neuroimaging in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"39","author":"Wilcox","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/122.7.1341","article-title":"Cognitive Function in Primary Progressive and Transitional Progressive Multiple Sclerosis. A Controlled Study with MRI Correlates","volume":"122","author":"Camp","year":"1999","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(14)70250-9","article-title":"Clinical and Imaging Assessment of Cognitive Dysfunction in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"14","author":"Rocca","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-021-05383-z","article-title":"ApoE4-Positive Multiple Sclerosis Patients Are More Likely to Have Cognitive Impairment: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"43","author":"Mashayekhi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1312","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458515581874","article-title":"Cognitive Reserve in Multiple Sclerosis: Protective Effects of Education","volume":"21","author":"Cavaco","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458518763541","article-title":"Association of Smoking but Not HLA-DRB1*15:01, APOE or Body Mass Index with Brain Atrophy in Early Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"25","author":"Graetz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.14712\/fb2010056060242","article-title":"Apolipoprotein E \u03954-Positive Multiple Sclerosis Patients Develop More Gray-Matter and Whole-Brain Atrophy: A 15-Year Disease History Model Based on a 4-Year Longitudinal Study","volume":"56","author":"Bergsland","year":"2010","journal-title":"Folia Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5498","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-024-12517-8","article-title":"Correlation between Cognitive Changes and Neuroradiological Changes over Time in Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"271","author":"Simani","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gajewski, B., Karli\u0144ska, I., Domowicz, M., Bednarski, I., \u015awiderek-Matysiak, M., and Stasio\u0142ek, M. (2025). No Relation Between Cognitive Impairment, Physical Disability and Serum Biomarkers in a Cohort of Progressive Multiple Sclerosis Patients. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15010068"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-019-0170-8","article-title":"Reaching an Evidence-Based Prognosis for Personalized Treatment of Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"15","author":"Rotstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3116","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-024-12305-4","article-title":"Early Use of High-Efficacy Therapies in Multiple Sclerosis in the United States: Benefits, Barriers, and Strategies for Encouraging Adoption","volume":"271","author":"Singer","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Torrico, T.J., and Munakomi, S. (2023). Neuroanatomy, Thalamus, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.09.059","article-title":"Temporal and Spatial Evolution of Grey Matter Atrophy in Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"86","author":"Eshaghi","year":"2014","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.10100326","article-title":"Thalamic Damage and Long-Term Progression of Disability in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"257","author":"Rocca","year":"2010","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000001285","article-title":"Thalamus Structure and Function Determine Severity of Cognitive Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"84","author":"Schoonheim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5602","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.26464","article-title":"Lifespan Neurodegeneration of the Human Brain in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"44","author":"Planche","year":"2023","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-014-1787-9","article-title":"Thalamus Pathology in Multiple Sclerosis: From Biology to Clinical Application","volume":"72","author":"Kipp","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci. C"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bsteh, G., Dal-Bianco, A., Krajnc, N., and Berger, T. (2025). Biomarkers of Progression Independent of Relapse Activity\u2014Can We Actually Measure It Yet?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26104704"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e102","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000102","article-title":"Early CNS Neurodegeneration in Radiologically Isolated Syndrome","volume":"2","author":"Azevedo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16826","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4184-11.2011","article-title":"Multimodal Quantitative Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Thalamic Development and Aging across the Human Lifespan: Implications to Neurodegeneration in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"31","author":"Hasan","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104708","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2023.104708","article-title":"Therapy Effect on AI-Derived Thalamic Atrophy Using Clinical Routine MRI Protocol: A Longitudinal, Multi-Center, Propensity-Matched Multiple Sclerosis Study","volume":"74","author":"Jakimovski","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"P3-361","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.90.15_supplement.P3.361","article-title":"Thalamic Atrophy and Disability in Progressive Multiple Sclerosis Subgroups (P3.361)","volume":"90","author":"Tobyne","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.98.18_supplement.1375","article-title":"Regional Atrophy of the Thalamus as a Biomarker for Progressive Multiple Sclerosis (P12-4.007)","volume":"98","author":"Nicholson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awv337","article-title":"Cortical Atrophy Patterns in Multiple Sclerosis Are Non-Random and Clinically Relevant","volume":"139","author":"Steenwijk","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Goldstein, A., Covington, B.P., Mahabadi, N., and Mesfin, F.B. (2023). Neuroanatomy, Corpus Callosum, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fox, J., Kraemer, M., Schormann, T., Dabringhaus, A., Hirsch, J., Eisele, P., Szabo, K., Weiss, C., Amann, M., and Weier, K. (2016). Individual Assessment of Brain Tissue Changes in MS and the Effect of Focal Lesions on Short-Term Focal Atrophy Development in MS: A Voxel-Guided Morphometry Study. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17040489"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1111\/1754-9485.12570","article-title":"Midsagittal Corpus Callosum Area and Conversion to Multiple Sclerosis after Clinically Isolated Syndrome: A Multicentre Australian Cohort Study","volume":"61","author":"Odenthal","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Med. Imaging Radiat. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-010-5503-x","article-title":"Corpus Callosum Index and Long-Term Disability in Multiple Sclerosis Patients","volume":"257","author":"Yaldizli","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2017.05.032","article-title":"Corpus Callosum Atrophy as a Marker of Clinically Meaningful Cognitive Decline in Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis. Impact on Employment Status","volume":"43","author":"Papathanasiou","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.12838","article-title":"Deep Learning Corpus Callosum Segmentation as a Neurodegenerative Marker in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"31","author":"Platten","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2023.578280","article-title":"Early-Stage Volume Losses in the Corpus Callosum and Thalamus Predict the Progression of Brain Atrophy in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"387","author":"Fujimori","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2006.106690","article-title":"Progression of Non-Age Related Callosal Brain Atrophy in Multiple Sclerosis. A Nine Years Longitudinal MRI Study Representing Four Decades of Disease Development","volume":"78","author":"Juha","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2018.03.002","article-title":"Lesion Accumulation Is Predictive of Long-Term Cognitive Decline in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"21","author":"Ouellette","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.15537\/smj.2025.46.6.20240957","article-title":"Segmentation with Artificial Intelligence and Automated Calculation of the Corpus Callosum Index in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"46","author":"Demirbas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Saudi Med. J."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1590\/S0004-282X2007000600001","article-title":"Corpus Callosum Index: A Practical Method for Long-Term Follow-up in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"65","author":"Figueira","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arq. Neuropsiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.54005\/geneltip.1124013","article-title":"The Relationship Between Structural Measurements of the Corpus Callosum and Disability in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"32","author":"Demir","year":"2022","journal-title":"Genel T\u0131p Derg."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/124.9.1813","article-title":"Size-Selective Neuronal Changes in the Anterior Optic Pathways Suggest a Differential Susceptibility to Injury in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"124","author":"Evangelou","year":"2001","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-003-0992-5","article-title":"A Study of the Mechanisms of Normal-Appearing White Matter Damage in Multiple Sclerosis Using Diffusion Tensor Imaging: Evidence of Wallerian Degeneration","volume":"250","author":"Ciccarelli","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1191\/1352458504ms1053oa","article-title":"Multiple Sclerosis Pathology in the Normal and Abnormal Appearing White Matter of the Corpus Callosum by Diffusion Tensor Imaging","volume":"10","author":"Coombs","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.20083","article-title":"Preferential Occult Injury of Corpus Callosum in Multiple Sclerosis Measured by Diffusion Tensor Imaging","volume":"20","author":"Ge","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2006.112177","article-title":"Use of Combined Conventional and Quantitative MRI to Quantify Pathology Related to Cognitive Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"79","author":"Lin","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2656","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.20692","article-title":"Corpus Callosum Damage and Cognitive Dysfunction in Benign MS","volume":"30","author":"Mesaros","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/jon.12124","article-title":"Corpus Callosum Atrophy Correlates with Gray Matter Atrophy in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"25","author":"Klawiter","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_91","unstructured":"Jimsheleishvili, S., and Dididze, M. (2023). Neuroanatomy, Cerebellum, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sarica, A., Cerasa, A., and Quattrone, A. (2015). The Neurocognitive Profile of the Cerebellum in Multiple Sclerosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms160612185"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-021-01312-0","article-title":"Regional Cerebellar Volume Loss Predicts Future Disability in Multiple Sclerosis Patients","volume":"21","author":"Parmar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2017-316448","article-title":"Cerebellar Lobule Atrophy and Disability in Progressive MS","volume":"88","author":"Cocozza","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Young, C.B., Reddy, V., and Sonne, J. (2023). Neuroanatomy, Basal Ganglia, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"1020","article-title":"Putamen Gray Matter Volumes in Neuropsychiatric and Neurodegenerative Disorders","volume":"3","author":"Luo","year":"2019","journal-title":"World J. Psychiatry Ment. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fcae234","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcae234","article-title":"Longitudinal Network-Based Brain Grey Matter MRI Measures Are Clinically Relevant and Sensitive to Treatment Effects in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"6","author":"Colato","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Commun."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kr\u00e4mer, J., Meuth, S.G., Tenberge, J.G., Schiffler, P., Wiendl, H., and Deppe, M. (2015). Early and Degressive Putamen Atrophy in Multiple Sclerosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms161023195"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-020-0314-x","article-title":"MAGNIMS Consensus Recommendations on the Use of Brain and Spinal Cord Atrophy Measures in Clinical Practice","volume":"16","author":"Pareto","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1868","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3181e24136","article-title":"Assessing Brain Atrophy Rates in a Large Population of Untreated Multiple Sclerosis Subtypes","volume":"74","author":"Giorgio","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1177\/13524585241272938","article-title":"Aging Is Associated with Reduced Inflammatory Disease Activity Independent of Disease Duration in Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis Trial Populations","volume":"30","author":"Coerver","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1186\/s43055-022-00726-y","article-title":"MR Volumetry in Detection of Brain Atrophic Changes in MS Patients and Its Implication on Disease Prognosis: Retrospective Study","volume":"53","author":"Fatouh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Radiol. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1572","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.59.10.1572","article-title":"Longitudinal Brain Volume Measurement in Multiple Sclerosis: Rate of Brain Atrophy Is Independent of the Disease Subtype","volume":"59","author":"Kalkers","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000129828.03714.90","article-title":"Differences in Cognitive Impairment of Relapsing Remitting, Secondary, and Primary Progressive MS","volume":"63","author":"Huijbregts","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00007804","article-title":"A Comparison of Neuropsychological Deficits in Primary and Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"247","author":"Foong","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1111\/jnp.12202","article-title":"Characterizing Cognitive Deficits and Potential Predictors in Multiple Sclerosis: A Large Nationwide Study Applying Brief International Cognitive Assessment for Multiple Sclerosis in Standard Clinical Care","volume":"14","author":"Renner","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/138033990513645","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment in Primary and Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"27","author":"Wachowius","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1501","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e31828cf82f","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment Differs between Primary Progressive and Relapsing-Remitting MS","volume":"80","author":"Ruet","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/743878","article-title":"Patterns of Cognitive Dysfunction in Progressive MS","volume":"27","author":"Connick","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.12715","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment in a Population-Based Study of Patients with Multiple Sclerosis: Differences between Late Relapsing\u2212remitting, Secondary Progressive and Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"23","author":"Planche","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2801","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.15900","article-title":"Cognitive Function in Primary and Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis: A Multiparametric Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study","volume":"30","author":"Mistri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Achiron, A., Chapman, J., Magalashvili, D., Dolev, M., Lavie, M., Bercovich, E., Polliack, M., Doniger, G.M., Stern, Y., and Khilkevich, O. (2013). Modeling of Cognitive Impairment by Disease Duration in Multiple Sclerosis: A Cross-Sectional Study. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071058"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.12740\/PP\/125747","article-title":"Memory in Polish Multiple Sclerosis Patients\u2014Correlations with Mood and Fatigue","volume":"55","author":"Betscher","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Pol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-019-01060-2","article-title":"The Cerebellar Cognitive Affective Syndrome\u2014A Meta-Analysis","volume":"18","author":"Ahmadian","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1793","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000072264.75989.B8","article-title":"Cognitive Performance and MR Markers of Cerebral Injury in Cognitively Impaired MS Patients","volume":"60","author":"Christodoulou","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2932","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.09.071","article-title":"Fornix Damage Limits Verbal Memory Functional Compensation in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"59","author":"Kern","year":"2012","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e31828726cc","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment in MS: Impact of White Matter Integrity, Gray Matter Volume, and Lesions","volume":"80","author":"Hulst","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.21499","article-title":"Corpus Callosum Damage Predicts Disability Progression and Cognitive Dysfunction in Primary-progressive MS after Five Years","volume":"34","author":"Bodini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103792","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nicl.2025.103792","article-title":"Regional Cerebellar Atrophy Related to Disability and Cognitive Progression in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"46","author":"Strik","year":"2025","journal-title":"NeuroImage Clin."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105705","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2024.105705","article-title":"Cognitive Performance and Magnetic Resonance Imaging in People with Multiple Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"88","author":"Mirmosayyeb","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1111\/ane.12702","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Correlates in Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"136","author":"Gouveia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weier, K., Penner, I.K., Magon, S., Amann, M., Naegelin, Y., Andelova, M., Derfuss, T., Stippich, C., Radue, E.W., and Kappos, L. (2014). Cerebellar Abnormalities Contribute to Disability Including Cognitive Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0086916"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02044","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.2044","article-title":"Brain Region Volumes and Their Relationship with Disability Progression and Cognitive Function in Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"11","author":"Prefasi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-011-6147-1","article-title":"Basal Ganglia, Thalamus and Neocortical Atrophy Predicting Slowed Cognitive Processing in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"259","author":"Batista","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fcae226","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcae226","article-title":"Cognitive Function in Severe Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"6","author":"Jakimovski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Commun."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delis, D.C., Kaplan, E., and Kramer, J.H. (2012). Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System. PsycTESTS Dataset.","DOI":"10.1037\/t15082-000"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mannarelli, D., Pauletti, C., Missori, P., Trompetto, C., Cotellessa, F., Fattapposta, F., and Curr\u00e0, A. (2023). Cerebellum\u2019s Contribution to Attention, Executive Functions and Timing: Psychophysiological Evidence from Event-Related Potentials. Brain Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13121683"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(22)00289-7","article-title":"Multiple Sclerosis Progression: Time for a New Mechanism-Driven Framework","volume":"22","author":"Kuhlmann","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25197","article-title":"Inflammatory Intrathecal Profiles and Cortical Damage in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"83","author":"Magliozzi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E2965","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000010909","article-title":"Pathologic Correlates of the Magnetization Transfer Ratio in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"95","author":"Moccia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03892-7","article-title":"A Lymphocyte-Microglia-Astrocyte Axis in Chronic Active Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"597","author":"Absinta","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-021-00581-x","article-title":"Mechanism-Based Criteria to Improve Therapeutic Outcomes in Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"18","author":"Yong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2705","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awh641","article-title":"Cortical Demyelination and Diffuse White Matter Injury in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"128","author":"Kutzelnigg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2755","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awr182","article-title":"Meningeal Inflammation Is Widespread and Linked to Cortical Pathology in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"134","author":"Howell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24497","article-title":"Clinical and Pathological Insights into the Dynamic Nature of the White Matter Multiple Sclerosis Plaque","volume":"78","author":"Frischer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1097\/NEN.0000000000000189","article-title":"Neuronal and Axonal Loss in Normal-Appearing Gray Matter and Subpial Lesions in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"74","author":"Klaver","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1111\/bpa.12760","article-title":"Post-Mortem Multiple Sclerosis Lesion Pathology Is Influenced by Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms","volume":"30","author":"Fransen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"884","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26061","article-title":"Genetic Variation in WNT9B Increases Relapse Hazard in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"89","author":"Vandebergh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taloni, A., Farrelly, F.A., Pontillo, G., Petsas, N., Giann\u00ec, C., Ruggieri, S., Petracca, M., Brunetti, A., Pozzilli, C., and Pantano, P. (2022). Evaluation of Disability Progression in Multiple Sclerosis via Magnetic-Resonance-Based Deep Learning Techniques. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms231810651"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(17)30470-2","article-title":"Diagnosis of Multiple Sclerosis: 2017 Revisions of the McDonald Criteria","volume":"17","author":"Thompson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2395","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aww173","article-title":"Defining Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"139","author":"Lorscheider","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327752jpa6703_13","article-title":"Comparison of Beck Depression Inventories -IA and -II in Psychiatric Outpatients","volume":"67","author":"Beck","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Pers. Assess."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.5603\/PJNNS.a2020.0080","article-title":"Polish Validation of the Brief International Cognitive Assessment for Multiple Sclerosis (BICAMS Battery): Correlation of Cognitive Impairment with Mood Disorders and Fatigue","volume":"55","author":"Betscher","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol. Neurochir. Pol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.5603\/pjnns.98204","article-title":"Symbol Digit Modalities Test in Progressive Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"58","author":"Gajewski","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Neurochir. Pol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Potticary, H., and Langdon, D. (2023). A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Brief Cognitive Assessment for Multiple Sclerosis (BICAMS) International Validations. J. Clin. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12020703"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1186","DOI":"10.1080\/13854046.2012.725101","article-title":"Cross Cultural Validation of the Minimal Assessment of Cognitive Function in Multiple Sclerosis (MACFIMS) and the Brief International Cognitive Assessment for Multiple Sclerosis (BICAMS)","volume":"26","author":"Dusankova","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1037\/h0054651","article-title":"Studies of Interference in Serial Verbal Reactions","volume":"18","author":"Stroop","year":"1935","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scarpina, F., and Tagini, S. (2017). The Stroop Color and Word Test. Front. Psychol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00557"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ro\u015bciszewska-\u017cukowska, I., Podyma, M., Stasio\u0142ek, M., and Siger, M. (2021). Thalamus Atrophy in the Peri-Pregnancy Period in Clinically Stable Multiple Sclerosis Patients: Preliminary Results. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11101270"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csbj.2025.04.007","article-title":"Deep Learning-Based Automatic Segmentation of Brain Structures on MRI: A Test-Retest Reproducibility Analysis","volume":"28","author":"Puzio","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Struct. Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_151","first-page":"1483","article-title":"Normalization of Cerebral Volumes by Use of Intracranial Volume: Implications for Longitudinal Quantitative MR Imaging","volume":"22","author":"Whitwell","year":"2001","journal-title":"AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.33.11.1444","article-title":"Rating Neurologic Impairment in Multiple Sclerosis: An Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS)","volume":"33","author":"Kurtzke","year":"1983","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1132","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2020.1568","article-title":"Contribution of Relapse-Independent Progression vs Relapse-Associated Worsening to Overall Confirmed Disability Accumulation in Typical Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis in a Pooled Analysis of 2 Randomized Clinical Trials","volume":"77","author":"Kappos","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/17\/8523\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:37:57Z","timestamp":1760035077000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/17\/8523"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]]},"references-count":153,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26178523"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26178523","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]]}}}