{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T05:37:40Z","timestamp":1789623460153,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]],"date-time":"2025-09-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756771200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan","award":["23K06959"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23K06959"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) antibody-associated disease (MOGAD) is characterized by the predominance of optic neuritis, myelitis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), and cortical encephalitis, and can be diagnosed by the presence of pathogenic immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies targeting the extracellular domain of MOG in the serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Initially considered a variant of multiple sclerosis (MS) or neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), it is now widely recognized as a separate entity, supported by converging evidence from serological, pathological, and clinical studies. Patients with MOGAD often exhibit better recovery from acute attacks; however, their clinical and pathological features vary based on the immunological role of MOG-IgG via antibody- or complement-mediated perivenous demyelinating pathology, in addition to MOG-specific cellular immunity, resulting in heterogeneous demyelinated lesions from vanishing benign forms to tissue necrosis, even though MOGAD is not a mild disease. The key is the immunological mechanism of devastating lesion coalescence and long-term degenerating mechanisms, which may still accrue, particularly in the relapsing, progressing, and aggressive clinical course of encephalomyelitis. The warning features of the severe clinical forms are: (1) fulminant acute multifocal lesions or multiphasic ADEM transitioning to diffuse (Schilder-type) or tumefactive lesions; (2) cortical or subcortical lesions related to brain atrophy and\/or refractory epilepsy (Rasmussen-type); (3) longitudinally extended spinal cord lesions severely affected with residual symptoms. In addition, it is cautious for patients refractory to acute stage early 1st treatment including intravenous methylprednisolone treatment and apheresis with residual symptoms and relapse activity with immunoglobulin and other 2nd line treatments including B cell depletion therapy. Persistent MOG-IgG high titration, intrathecal production of MOG-IgG, and suggestive markers of higher disease activity, such as cerebrospinal fluid interleukin-6 and complement C5b-9, could be identified as promising markers of higher disease activity, worsening of disability, and poor prognosis, and used to identify signs of escalating treatment strategies. It is promising of currently ongoing investigational antibodies against anti-interleukin-6 receptor and the neonatal Fc receptor. Moreover, due to possible refractory issues such as the intrathecal production of autoantibody and the involvement of complement in the worsening of the lesion, further developments of other mechanisms of action such as chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) and anti-complement therapies are warranted in the future.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26178538","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]],"date-time":"2025-09-02T15:02:57Z","timestamp":1756825377000},"page":"8538","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease: Pathophysiology, Clinical Patterns, and Therapeutic Challenges of Intractable and Severe Forms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7311-2578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tatsuro","family":"Misu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Tohoku University Hospital, 1-1 Seiryomachi, Aobaku, Sendai 980-8574, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2013.118","article-title":"The spectrum of MOG autoantibody-associated demyelinating diseases","volume":"9","author":"Reindl","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(21)00218-0","article-title":"Myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease","volume":"20","author":"Marignier","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(20)30432-4","article-title":"Paediatric multiple sclerosis and antibody-associated demyelination: Clinical, imaging, and biological considerations for diagnosis and care","volume":"20","author":"Fadda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"e1858","article-title":"Clinical spectrum and prognostic value of CNS MOG autoimmunity in adults: The MOGADOR study","volume":"90","author":"Ruiz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458519845112","article-title":"The clinical spectrum and incidence of anti-MOG-associated acquired demyelinating syndromes in children and adults","volume":"26","author":"Wong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-020-01824-2","article-title":"Cerebrospinal fluid findings in patients with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) antibodies. Part 1: Results from 163 lumbar punctures in 100 adult patients","volume":"17","author":"Jarius","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awaa102","article-title":"Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease: An immunopathological study","volume":"143","author":"Takai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-020-02132-y","article-title":"The pathology of central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating disease accompanying myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein autoantibody","volume":"139","author":"Hoftberger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(22)00431-8","article-title":"Diagnosis of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease: International MOGAD Panel proposed criteria","volume":"22","author":"Banwell","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000004117","article-title":"Diagnostic algorithm for relapsing acquired demyelinating syndromes in children","volume":"89","author":"Hacohen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hor, J.Y., and Fujihara, K. (2023). Epidemiology of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease: A review of prevalence and incidence worldwide. Front. Neurol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1260358"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2018.1814","article-title":"Association of MOG-IgG Serostatus with Relapse After Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis and Proposed Diagnostic Criteria for MOG-IgG-Associated Disorders","volume":"75","author":"Majed","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2869","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.15360","article-title":"The contribution of neuropathology to multiple sclerosis research","volume":"29","author":"Lassmann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/cen3.12569","article-title":"Perivenous demyelination: Association with anti-myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody","volume":"11","author":"Misu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp321","article-title":"Perivenous demyelination: Association with clinically defined acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and comparison with pathologically confirmed multiple sclerosis","volume":"133","author":"Young","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e335","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000335","article-title":"ADEM-like presentation, anti-MOG antibodies, and MS pathology: TWO case reports","volume":"4","author":"Breu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-013-1116-7","article-title":"Presence of six different lesion types suggests diverse mechanisms of tissue injury in neuromyelitis optica","volume":"125","author":"Misu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1177\/13524585231166834","article-title":"Comparison of MRI T2-lesion evolution in pediatric MOGAD, NMOSD, and MS","volume":"29","author":"Redenbaugh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200059","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200059","article-title":"More Efficient Complement Activation by Anti-Aquaporin-4 Compared with Anti-Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibodies","volume":"10","author":"Lerch","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e165373","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.165373","article-title":"MOGAD patient autoantibodies induce complement, phagocytosis, and cellular cytotoxicity","volume":"8","author":"Yandamuri","year":"2023","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1080\/14712598.2021.1884223","article-title":"Targeting the complement system in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder","volume":"21","author":"Asavapanumas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2009.139","article-title":"Complement and its role in innate and adaptive immune responses","volume":"20","author":"Dunkelberger","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21837","article-title":"Neuromyelitis optica: Pathogenicity of patient immunoglobulin in vivo","volume":"66","author":"Bradl","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2012.09.002","article-title":"Increase of complement fragment C5a in cerebrospinal fluid during exacerbation of neuromyelitis optica","volume":"254","author":"Kuroda","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2025.106282","article-title":"Predictive complement biomarkers for relapse in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders","volume":"94","author":"Miyamoto","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolf, H.N., Guempelein, L., Schikora, J., and Pauly, D. (2024). C3a Mediates Endothelial Barrier Disruption in Brain-Derived, but Not Retinal, Human Endothelial Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252011240"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200293","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200293","article-title":"Different Complement Activation Patterns Following C5 Cleavage in MOGAD and AQP4-IgG+NMOSD","volume":"11","author":"Kaneko","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1479","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000183151.19351.82","article-title":"Intractable hiccup and nausea with periaqueductal lesions in neuromyelitis optica","volume":"65","author":"Misu","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awab105","article-title":"Features of MOG required for recognition by patients with MOG antibody-associated disorders","volume":"144","author":"Macrini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-019-1637-7","article-title":"Anti-MOG autoantibodies pathogenicity in children and macaques demyelinating diseases","volume":"16","author":"Serguera","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25291","article-title":"Pathogenicity of human antibodies against myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein","volume":"84","author":"Spadaro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kohyama, K., Nishida, H., Kaneko, K., Misu, T., Nakashima, I., and Sakuma, H. (2023). Complement-dependent cytotoxicity of human autoantibodies against myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein. Front. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1014071"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.164","article-title":"Histopathology and clinical course of MOG-antibody-associated encephalomyelitis","volume":"2","author":"Spadaro","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takai, Y., Misu, T., Fujihara, K., and Aoki, M. (2023). Pathology of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease: A comparison with multiple sclerosis and aquaporin 4 antibody-positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders. Front. Neurol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1209749"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000012","article-title":"Antibodies to MOG have a demyelination phenotype and affect oligodendrocyte cytoskeleton","volume":"1","author":"Dale","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/2051-5960-2-35","article-title":"Neuromyelitis optica MOG-IgG causes reversible lesions in mouse brain","volume":"2","author":"Saadoun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2300648120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2300648120","article-title":"Dissection of complement and Fc-receptor-mediated pathomechanisms of autoantibodies to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein","volume":"120","author":"Mader","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200275","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200275","article-title":"MOG CNS Autoimmunity and MOGAD","volume":"11","author":"Moseley","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hofer, L.S., Ramberger, M., Gredler, V., Pescoller, A.S., Rost\u00e1sy, K., Sospedra, M., Hegen, H., Berger, T., Lutterotti, A., and Reindl, M. (2020). Comparative Analysis of T-Cell Responses to Aquaporin-4 and Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein in Inflammatory Demyelinating Central Nervous System Diseases. Front. Immunol.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01188"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ono, H., Misu, T., Namatame, C., Matsumoto, Y., Takai, Y., Nishiyama, S., Kuroda, H., Takahashi, T., Nakashima, I., and Fujihara, K. (2025). CD4-Positive T-Cell Responses to MOG Peptides in MOG Antibody-Associated Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26083606"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(22)00187-9","article-title":"Optic neuritis and autoimmune optic neuropathies: Advances in diagnosis and treatment","volume":"22","author":"Bennett","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3128","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awx276","article-title":"Clinical presentation and prognosis in MOG-antibody disease: A UK study","volume":"140","author":"Jurynczyk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30488-0","article-title":"Associations of paediatric demyelinating and encephalitic syndromes with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies: A multicentre observational study","volume":"19","author":"Armangue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e322","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000322","article-title":"MOG antibody-positive, benign, unilateral, cerebral cortical encephalitis with epilepsy","volume":"4","author":"Ogawa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2016-315094","article-title":"Bilateral frontal cortex encephalitis and paraparesis in a patient with anti-MOG antibodies","volume":"88","author":"Fujimori","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.25909","article-title":"Clinical Features and Risk of Relapse in Children and Adults with Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease","volume":"89","author":"Ruiz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26858","article-title":"Time to Disability Milestones and Annualized Relapse Rates in NMOSD and MOGAD","volume":"95","author":"Duchow","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2018.4053","article-title":"Clinical, Radiologic, and Prognostic Features of Myelitis Associated with Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Autoantibody","volume":"76","author":"Dubey","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2142780","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.42780","article-title":"Factors Associated with Relapse and Treatment of Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease in the United Kingdom","volume":"5","author":"Satukijchai","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sechi, E., Cacciaguerra, L., Chen, J.J., Mariotto, S., Fadda, G., Dinoto, A., Lopez-Chiriboga, A.S., Pittock, S.J., and Flanagan, E.P. (2022). Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease (MOGAD): A Review of Clinical and MRI Features, Diagnosis, and Management. Front. Neurol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.885218"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2017-316880","article-title":"Clinical course, therapeutic responses and outcomes in relapsing MOG antibody-associated demyelination","volume":"89","author":"Ramanathan","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1177\/13524585251325069","article-title":"Smoking status and vascular risk factors as predictors of disability in AQP4-NMOSD and MOGAD","volume":"31","author":"Chan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fadda, G., Flanagan, E.P., Cacciaguerra, L., Jitprapaikulsan, J., Solla, P., Zara, P., and Sechi, E. (2022). Myelitis features and outcomes in CNS demyelinating disorders: Comparison between multiple sclerosis, MOGAD, and AQP4-IgG-positive NMOSD. Front. Neurol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.1011579"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2018.06.003","article-title":"Anti-Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody Associated with Gray Matter Predominant Transverse Myelitis Mimicking Acute Flaccid Myelitis: A Presentation of Two Cases","volume":"86","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1912732","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.12732","article-title":"Comparison of Clinical Outcomes of Transverse Myelitis Among Adults With Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody vs. Aquaporin-4 Antibody Disease","volume":"2","author":"Mariano","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102964","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.102964","article-title":"Progressive myelopathy in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease: A new mimicker of progressive multiple sclerosis?","volume":"52","author":"Marcucci","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kunchok, A., Amin, M., Ongphichetmetha, T., Du, M., Bermel, R., Harvey, T., Abbatemarco, J.R., Jones, S.E., Cohen, J.A., and Ontaneda, D. (2025). Volumetric MRI Comparing Longitudinal Change in MOGAD to NMOSD, MS and Healthy Controls, and Disability Associations. Ann. Neurol., 29.","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.27309"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1100","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000001100","article-title":"Interleukin-6 Receptor Blockade in Treatment-Refractory MOG-IgG-Associated Disease and Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders","volume":"9","author":"Ringelstein","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2024.08.018","article-title":"Radiologic Predictors of Visual Outcome in Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein-Related Optic Neuritis","volume":"132","author":"Handzic","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2022.103525","article-title":"OCT retinal nerve fiber layer thickness differentiates acute optic neuritis from MOG antibody-associated disease and Multiple Sclerosis: RNFL thickening in acute optic neuritis from MOGAD vs. MS","volume":"58","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2024.103693","article-title":"MOGAD: A comprehensive review of clinicoradiological features, therapy and outcomes in 4699 patients globally","volume":"24","author":"Trewin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2017.4601","article-title":"Disease Course and Treatment Responses in Children with Relapsing Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease","volume":"75","author":"Hacohen","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000004312","article-title":"Prognostic relevance of MOG antibodies in children with an acquired demyelinating syndrome","volume":"89","author":"Hennes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1821","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458516631038","article-title":"Children with multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis and antibodies to the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG): Extending the spectrum of MOG antibody positive diseases","volume":"22","author":"Baumann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, X., Zhao, R., Yang, H., Liu, C., and Zhao, Q. (2023). Two rare cases of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disorder in children with leukodystrophy-like imaging findings. BMC Neurol., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12883-023-03294-4"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-023-07243-4","article-title":"Drug refractory epilepsy in MOGAD: An evolving spectrum","volume":"45","author":"Kaur","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3180","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17424","article-title":"Acute symptomatic seizures secondary to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease","volume":"63","author":"Montalvo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2481","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-019-09440-8","article-title":"Unilateral cortical FLAIR-hyperintense Lesions in Anti-MOG-associated Encephalitis with Seizures (FLAMES): Characterization of a distinct clinico-radiographic syndrome","volume":"266","author":"Budhram","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1177\/13524585221090737","article-title":"Progressive myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-associated demyelination mimicking leukodystrophy","volume":"28","author":"Gibbons","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200325","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200325","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment, Associated Clinical Factors, and MR Volumetric Measures in Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein-IgG-Associated Disease","volume":"11","author":"Kogel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Meo, E., Nistri, R., Eyre, M., Hemingway, C., Lim, M., Rossor, T., Biswas, A., Mankad, K., Siddiqui, A., and Sudhakar, S. (2025). Understanding Mechanisms of Whole Brain and Regional Grey Matter Atrophy in Children With MOGAD. Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol.","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.70123"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2024.105859","article-title":"Efficacy of tocilizumab in highly relapsing MOGAD with an inadequate response to intravenous immunoglobulin therapy: A case series","volume":"91","author":"Kang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1177\/13524585231213792","article-title":"An aggressive form of MOGAD treated with aHSCT: A case report","volume":"30","author":"Sbragia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5294","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000212268","article-title":"Anti-NMDA Receptor Encephalitis with Elevated MOG Antibodies: A Case of Overlapping Autoimmune Syndromes (P10-8.008)","volume":"104","author":"Caicedo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24224","article-title":"Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis with multiphasic demyelination","volume":"76","author":"Kaneko","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24117","article-title":"Overlapping demyelinating syndromes and anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis","volume":"75","author":"Titulaer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-025-13245-3","article-title":"MOGAD-related epilepsy: A systematic characterization of age-dependent clinical, fluid, imaging and neurophysiological features","volume":"272","author":"Rubin","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1002\/jdn.10255","article-title":"Clinical features of the first attack with leukodystrophy-like phenotype in children with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disorders","volume":"83","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Dev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2329048x221079093","DOI":"10.1177\/2329048X221079093","article-title":"Refractory MOG-Associated Demyelinating Disease in a Pediatric Patient","volume":"9","author":"Kroenke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Child Neurol Open"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200065","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200065","article-title":"Early Immunotherapy and Longer Corticosteroid Treatment Are Associated with Lower Risk of Relapsing Disease Course in Pediatric MOGAD","volume":"10","author":"Nosadini","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2023.02.013","article-title":"Visual Outcomes Following Plasma Exchange for Optic Neuritis: An International Multicenter Retrospective Analysis of 395 Optic Neuritis Attacks","volume":"252","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpn.2020.10.005","article-title":"E.U. paediatric MOG consortium consensus: Part 5\u2014Treatment of paediatric myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disorders","volume":"29","author":"Bruijstens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2024-334863","article-title":"Apheresis therapies in MOGAD: A retrospective study of 117 therapeutic interventions in 571 attacks","volume":"96","author":"Schwake","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2022-330237","article-title":"Prognostic relevance of quantitative and longitudinal MOG antibody testing in patients with MOGAD: A multicentre retrospective study","volume":"94","author":"Gastaldi","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1095","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000001095","article-title":"Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein-Immunoglobulin G in the CSF: Clinical Implication of Testing and Association with Disability","volume":"9","author":"Kwon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3938","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awad122","article-title":"Diagnostic implications of MOG-IgG detection in sera and cerebrospinal fluids","volume":"146","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2024-333554","article-title":"Clinical, prognostic and pathophysiological implications of MOG-IgG detection in the CSF: The importance of intrathecal MOG-IgG synthesis","volume":"95","author":"Greco","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Qiu, Z., Li, D., Yang, X., Ding, Y., Gao, L., Liu, A., Song, Y., Li, C., and Gao, R. (2021). Clinical and Imaging Features of Patients with Encephalitic Symptoms and Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibodies. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.722404"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.15549","article-title":"Serum neurofilament light chain in adult and pediatric patients with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease: Correlation with relapses and seizures","volume":"160","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102833","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.102833","article-title":"NfL levels predominantly increase at disease onset in MOG-Abs-associated disorders","volume":"50","author":"Mariotto","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2015.10.002","article-title":"Increased interleukin-6 correlates with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies in pediatric monophasic demyelinating diseases and multiple sclerosis","volume":"289","author":"Horellou","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200243","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200243","article-title":"Life-Threatening MOG Antibody-Associated Hemorrhagic ADEM With Elevated CSF IL-6","volume":"11","author":"Virupakshaiah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200340","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200340","article-title":"Complement Activation Profiles Predict Clinical Outcomes in Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease","volume":"12","author":"Lunemann","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e308","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000201465","article-title":"Differentiating Multiple Sclerosis from AQP4-Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder and MOG-Antibody Disease with Imaging","volume":"100","author":"Cortese","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matsumoto, Y., Ohyama, A., Kubota, T., Ikeda, K., Kaneko, K., Takai, Y., Warita, H., Takahashi, T., Misu, T., and Aoki, M. (2022). MOG Antibody-Associated Disorders Following SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination: A Case Report and Literature Review. Front. Neurol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.845755"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2020-324818","article-title":"Distinctive lesions of brain MRI between MOG-antibody-associated and AQP4-antibody-associated diseases","volume":"92","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1854","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458519893093","article-title":"MRI differences between MOG antibody disease and AQP4 NMOSD","volume":"26","author":"Salama","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awaa347","article-title":"Quantitative spinal cord MRI in MOG-antibody disease, neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis","volume":"144","author":"Mariano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.103118","article-title":"Distinct patterns of MRI lesions in MOG antibody disease and AQP4 NMOSD: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"54","author":"Carandini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2018.07.020","article-title":"Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Positive Optic Neuritis: Clinical Characteristics, Radiologic Clues, and Outcome","volume":"195","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-024-01005-2","article-title":"The influence of MOGAD on diagnosis of multiple sclerosis using MRI","volume":"20","author":"Geraldes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1418","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000206820","article-title":"Tumefactive Demyelination in MOG Ab-Associated Disease, Multiple Sclerosis, and AQP-4-IgG-Positive Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"100","author":"Cacciaguerra","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000000101","article-title":"Distinction between MOG antibody-positive and AQP4 antibody-positive NMO spectrum disorders","volume":"82","author":"Sato","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seizure.2024.09.001","article-title":"Current practices in the diagnosis and treatment of Rasmussen syndrome: Results of an international survey","volume":"122","author":"Stredny","year":"2024","journal-title":"Seizure Eur. J. Epilepsy"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e708","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000708","article-title":"Serum biomarkers in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody\u2013associated disease","volume":"7","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Amp; Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2019.2940","article-title":"Serial Anti\u2013Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody Analyses and Outcomes in Children with Demyelinating Syndromes","volume":"77","author":"Waters","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2018-317969","article-title":"CSF cytokine profile in MOG-IgG+ neurological disease is similar to AQP4-IgG+ NMOSD but distinct from MS: A cross-sectional study and potential therapeutic implications","volume":"89","author":"Kaneko","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200362","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200362","article-title":"Profile and Usefulness of Serum Cytokines to Predict Prognosis in Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease","volume":"12","author":"Espejo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000012175","article-title":"Difference in the Source of Anti-AQP4-IgG and Anti-MOG-IgG Antibodies in CSF in Patients with Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"97","author":"Akaishi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26226","article-title":"Complement Activation Is a Prominent Feature of MOGAD","volume":"90","author":"Keller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"993","DOI":"10.1177\/13524585211063756","article-title":"Absence of attack-independent neuroaxonal injury in MOG antibody-associated disease: Longitudinal assessment of serum neurofilament light chain","volume":"28","author":"Hyun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1177\/13524585221081090","article-title":"Serum neurofilament light-chain levels in children with monophasic myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein-associated disease, multiple sclerosis, and other acquired demyelinating syndrome","volume":"28","author":"Wendel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2015-312676","article-title":"Myelin injury without astrocytopathy in neuroinflammatory disorders with MOG antibodies","volume":"87","author":"Kaneko","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, X., Huang, W., Wang, L., ZhangBao, J., Zhou, L., Lu, C., Wang, M., Yu, J., Li, H., and Li, Y. (2021). Serum Neurofilament Light and GFAP Are Associated with Disease Severity in Inflammatory Disorders with Aquaporin-4 or Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibodies. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.647618"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2025.106345","article-title":"Limited early IVIG for the treatment of pediatric myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease","volume":"97","author":"MacRae","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e111","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000009758","article-title":"Steroid-sparing maintenance immunotherapy for MOG-IgG associated disorder","volume":"95","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2022.0489","article-title":"Association of Maintenance Intravenous Immunoglobulin with Prevention of Relapse in Adult Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease","volume":"79","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.3593-24","article-title":"Successful Maintenance Therapy with Intravenous Immunoglobulin to Reduce Relapse Attacks and Steroid Dose in a Patient with Refractory Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-positive Optic Neuritis","volume":"64","author":"Kamijo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2020.102251","article-title":"Treatment of MOG-IgG-associated disorder with rituximab: An international study of 121 patients","volume":"44","author":"Whittam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.103044","article-title":"A comparison of the effects of rituximab versus other immunotherapies for MOG-IgG-associated central nervous system demyelination: A meta-analysis","volume":"53","author":"Bai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2504","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000201260","article-title":"Long-term Effectiveness and Safety of Rituximab in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder and MOG Antibody Disease","volume":"99","author":"Barreras","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/S1246-7820(03)00035-1","article-title":"Mechanisms of action of intravenous immunoglobulin in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases","volume":"10","author":"Bayry","year":"2003","journal-title":"Transfus. Clin. Biol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1134","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000001134","article-title":"Antineonatal Fc Receptor Antibody Treatment Ameliorates MOG-IgG\u2013Associated Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis","volume":"9","author":"Remlinger","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-022-01206-x","article-title":"Monoclonal Antibody Therapies Beyond Complement for NMOSD and MOGAD","volume":"19","author":"Redenbaugh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Digala, L., Katyal, N., Narula, N., and Govindarajan, R. (2021). Eculizumab in the Treatment of Aquaporin-4 Seronegative Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder: A Case Report. Front. Neurol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.660741"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2025.106602","article-title":"Treatment strategies of AQP4-IgG positive neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder and MOG antibody-associated disorder in Switzerland: A nationwide survey","volume":"102","author":"Steinegger","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(23)01524-6","article-title":"Complement in human disease: Approved and up-and-coming therapeutics","volume":"403","author":"West","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Hu, M., Wang, C., and Guo, S. (2025). Successful sequential therapy with rituximab and telitacicept in refractory Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis and MOG-associated demyelination: A case report and literature review. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1509143"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Derdelinckx, J., Reynders, T., Wens, I., Cools, N., and Willekens, B. (2021). Cells to the Rescue: Emerging Cell-Based Treatment Approaches for NMOSD and MOGAD. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22157925"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e200292","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000200292","article-title":"CD19-Directed CAR T-Cells in a Patient with Refractory MOGAD: Clinical and Immunologic Follow-Up for 1 Year","volume":"11","author":"Sepulveda","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/17\/8538\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:38:15Z","timestamp":1760035095000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/17\/8538"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]]},"references-count":130,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26178538"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26178538","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,2]]}}}