{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T18:02:18Z","timestamp":1792173738946,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":121,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]],"date-time":"2025-09-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756857600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006769","name":"Russian Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["No. 24-45-02034"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. 24-45-02034"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006769","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Obsessive\u2013compulsive disorder (OCD) is a heterogeneous mental illness characterized by a variety of clinical manifestations and underlying neurobiological mechanisms. Modern research highlights the importance of identifying subtypes of OCD\u2014separate categories that are characterized by specific phenotypic manifestations. This review provides a systematic integration of multi-level biomarker data (genetic, neuroimaging, neuropsychological) specifically aligned with the most consistently replicated, symptom-based subtypes of OCD. Our findings demonstrate that distinct OCD subtypes are underpinned by divergent neurobiological pathways, involving dysregulation across glutamatergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic, and neurotrophic systems, as well as distinct patterns of brain region engagement. The most extensive body of evidence currently exists for the contamination\/cleaning and symmetry\/ordering OCD subtypes. In contrast, other subtypes require more rigorous investigation. The findings from this study can provide theoretical prerequisites for future experimental studies involving larger cohorts of OCD patients, who can then be classified based on their detected biomarkers and tested accordingly.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26178578","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,4]],"date-time":"2025-09-04T09:18:57Z","timestamp":1756977537000},"page":"8578","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Biomarkers of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Subtypes: A Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6440-160X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ekaterina","family":"Proshina","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova St. 5A, 117485 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3860-3478","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastasia","family":"Gaidareva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova St. 5A, 117485 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Margarita","family":"Beskhizhko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Myasnitskaya St. 20, 101000 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Grigor","family":"Kazaryan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova St. 5A, 117485 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emily","family":"Bainbridge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova St. 5A, 117485 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9130-4274","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guzal","family":"Khayrullina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova St. 5A, 117485 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5, American Psychiatric Association.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1202812","article-title":"The Human Genome at 10: Successes and Challenges","volume":"331","author":"Venter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burke, W., and Korngiebel, D.M. (2015). Closing the Gap between Knowledge and Clinical Application: Challenges for Genomic Translation. PLoS Genet., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1004978"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/00207411.1972.11448568","article-title":"A Polygenic Theory of Schizophrenia","volume":"1","author":"Gottesman","year":"1972","journal-title":"Int. J. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.160.4.636","article-title":"The Endophenotype Concept in Psychiatry: Etymology and Strategic Intentions","volume":"160","author":"Gottesman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.clinpsy.2.022305.095232","article-title":"Endophenotypes in the Genetic Analyses of Mental Disorders","volume":"2","author":"Cannon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185540","article-title":"Endophenotypes in Psychopathology Research: Where Do We Stand?","volume":"9","author":"Miller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2014.04.003","article-title":"Genetic Psychophysiology: Advances, Problems, and Future Directions","volume":"93","author":"Anokhin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2005.00352.x","article-title":"Heritability of Background EEG across the Power Spectrum","volume":"42","author":"Smit","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adhikari, B.M., Jahanshad, N., Shukla, D., Glahn, D.C., Blangero, J., Reynolds, R.C., Cox, R.W., Fieremans, E., Veraart, J., and Novikov, D.S. (2018, January 3\u20137). Heritability Estimates on Resting State fMRI Data Using ENIGMA Analysis Pipeline. Proceedings of the Biocomputing 2018, Kohala Coast, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789813235533_0029"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.10.063","article-title":"The Future of fMRI and Genetics Research","volume":"62","year":"2012","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cravchik, A., and Goldman, D. (2000). Neurochemical Individuality: Genetic Diversity Among Human Dopamine and Serotonin Receptors and Transporters. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 57.","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.57.12.1105"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabana-Dom\u00ednguez, J., Torrico, B., Reif, A., Fern\u00e0ndez-Castillo, N., and Cormand, B. (2022). Comprehensive Exploration of the Genetic Contribution of the Dopaminergic and Serotonergic Pathways to Psychiatric Disorders. Transl. Psychiatry, 12.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-021-01771-3"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Rachman, S., and Hodgson, R.J. (1980). Obsessions and Compulsions, Prentice-Hall."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(88)90116-7","article-title":"Obsessions and Compulsions: The Padua Inventory","volume":"26","author":"Sanavio","year":"1988","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goodman, W.K. (1989). The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale: I. Development, Use, and Reliability. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 46.","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1989.01810110048007"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"18","article-title":"Factor Analysis of Symptom Subtypes of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and Their Relation to Personality and Tic Disorders","volume":"55","author":"Baer","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.154.7.911","article-title":"Symptoms of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"154","author":"Leckman","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(98)00135-1","article-title":"Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder Subgroups: A Symptom-Based Clustering Approach","volume":"37","author":"Calamari","year":"1999","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.156.9.1409","article-title":"Use of Factor-Analyzed Symptom Dimensions to Predict Outcome with Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Placebo in the Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"156","author":"Rauch","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.71.6.1049","article-title":"Symptom Presentation and Outcome of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"71","author":"Abramowitz","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.2.228","article-title":"A Multidimensional Model of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"162","author":"Leckman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.126.7.983","article-title":"Establishment of Diagnostic Validity in Psychiatric Illness: Its Application to Schizophrenia","volume":"126","author":"Robins","year":"1970","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1037\/h0101733","article-title":"OCD Subtypes: Which, If Any, Are Valid?","volume":"22","author":"Rowsell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1159\/000500137","article-title":"The Suitability of Different Subtypes and Dimensions of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder for Treatment with Anterior Capsulotomy: A Long-Term Follow-Up Study","volume":"97","author":"Gong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferguson, J.M. (2001). SSRI Antidepressant Medications: Adverse Effects and Tolerability. Prim. Care Companion CNS Disord., 3.","DOI":"10.4088\/PCC.v03n0105"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.3109\/00048674.2011.567243","article-title":"Functions of Compulsions in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"45","author":"Starcevic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-1781(96)02944-7","article-title":"The Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"65","author":"Richter","year":"1996","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Summerfeldt, L.J., Huta, V., and Swinson, R.P. (1998). Personality and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Theory, Research, and Treatment, Guilford Publications, Inc."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Summerfeldt, L., Antony, M., and Swinson, R. (2000, January 16\u201319). Incompleteness: A Link between Perfectionistic Traits and OCD. Perfectionism and psychopathology: Linking personality and dysfunctional behavior. Proceedings of the Symposium at the 34th Annual Meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Behaviour Therapy, New Orleans, LA, USA."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2007.08.004","article-title":"Moving Beyond an Exclusive Focus on Harm Avoidance in Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Considering the Role of Incompleteness","volume":"39","author":"Pietrefesa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behav. Ther."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"83","article-title":"Examining an Obsessive-Compulsive Core Dimensions Model: Structural Validity of Harm Avoidance and Incompleteness","volume":"3","author":"Summerfeldt","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Obs. Compuls. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(02)00044-X","article-title":"\u201cNot Just Right Experiences\u201d: Perfectionism, Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Features and General Psychopathology","volume":"41","author":"Coles","year":"2003","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2004.01.002","article-title":"Not Just Right Experiences and Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Features: Experimental and Self-Monitoring Perspectives","volume":"43","author":"Coles","year":"2005","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1527","DOI":"10.1126\/science.274.5292.1527","article-title":"Association of Anxiety-Related Traits with a Polymorphism in the Serotonin Transporter Gene Regulatory Region","volume":"274","author":"Lesch","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2017.10.010","article-title":"Combining Genetic and Epigenetic Parameters of the Serotonin Transporter Gene in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"96","author":"Marinova","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehrez, S., Neamatallah, M.A., Gomaa, Z., El-Gilany, A.H., Shahda, M., and Elsaied, H.F. (2024). Association between Serotonin Transporter Gene Polymorphism and Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder in the Egyptian Population. Middle East Curr. Psychiatry, 31.","DOI":"10.1186\/s43045-024-00449-y"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2007.12.005","article-title":"Association Study between Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Serotonergic Candidate Genes","volume":"32","author":"Saiz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2012.76","article-title":"Molecular Genetics of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis of Genetic Association Studies","volume":"18","author":"Taylor","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2008.04.233","article-title":"In Vivo PET Study of 5HT2A Serotonin and D2 Dopamine Dysfunction in Drug-Naive Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"42","author":"Perani","year":"2008","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.64.2.209","article-title":"A Genetic Family-Based Association Study of OLIG2 in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"64","author":"Stewart","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2011.11.003","article-title":"Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Beyond Segregated Cortico-Striatal Pathways","volume":"16","author":"Milad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1503\/jpn.110109","article-title":"Association between the NMDA Glutamate Receptor GRIN2B Gene and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"37","author":"Alonso","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Psychiatry Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v66n0911","article-title":"Hoarding in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Clinical and Genetic Correlates","volume":"66","author":"Lochner","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s12031-015-0697-0","article-title":"Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Gene Polymorphisms in Specific Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder Patients\u2019 Subgroups","volume":"58","author":"Giori","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2004.05.007","article-title":"Early- versus Late-Onset Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Investigating Genetic and Clinical Correlates","volume":"128","author":"Hemmings","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1050","DOI":"10.1002\/ajmg.b.30930","article-title":"The Role of the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) Val66met Variant in the Pheno-typic Expression of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)","volume":"150","author":"Katerberg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001848","article-title":"Functional SLITRK1 Var321, varCDfs and SLC6A4 G56A Variants and Susceptibility to Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"11","author":"Wendland","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1037\/pha0000297","article-title":"BDNF Association Study with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, its Clinical Characteristics, and Response to Fluvoxamine-Treatment in Iranian Patients","volume":"28","author":"Abdolhosseinzadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2009.6","article-title":"A Haplotype Containing Quantitative Trait Loci for SLC1A1 Gene Expression and Its Association with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"66","author":"Wendland","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(95)00047-2","article-title":"Symptom Subtypes of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in Behavioral Treatment Studies: A Quantitative Review","volume":"34","author":"Ball","year":"1996","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-44462011000400014","article-title":"Gender Differences in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Literature Review","volume":"33","author":"Funaro","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852900006167","article-title":"Neural Correlates of Factor-Analyzed OCD Symptom Dimensions: A PET Study","volume":"3","author":"Rauch","year":"1998","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291799002652","article-title":"A Differential Neural Response in Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder Patients with Washing Compared with Checking Symptoms to Disgust","volume":"30","author":"Phillips","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mataix-Cols, D., Wooderson, S., Lawrence, N., Brammer, M.J., Speckens, A., and Phillips, M.L. (2004). Distinct Neural Correlates of Washing, Checking, and Hoarding Symptom Dimensions in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 61.","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.61.6.564"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291719001090","article-title":"Functional Connectivity in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Its Subtypes","volume":"50","author":"Ravindran","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2010.07.022","article-title":"Variants in Estrogen Receptor Alpha Gene Are Associated with Phenotypical Expression of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"36","author":"Alonso","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajp.2017.10.014","article-title":"BDNF Gene and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Risk, Symptom Dimensions and Treatment Response","volume":"38","author":"Taj","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asian J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.18869\/nirp.bcn.8.3.233","article-title":"Research Paper: Neuropsychological Functioning in Obsessive-Compulsive Washers: Drug-Naive Without Depressive Symptoms","volume":"8","author":"Saremi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Basic Clin. Neurosci. J."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2014.12.016","article-title":"Neuropsychological Differences between Obsessive-Compulsive Washers and Checkers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"30","author":"Leopold","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davoudi, M., Pourshahbaz, A., Dolatshahi, B., Nazeriastaneh, A., and Poshtmashhadi, M. (2023). Network Analysis for Predicting Treatment Response in Patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Iran. J. Psychiatry Behav. Sci., in press.","DOI":"10.5812\/ijpbs-137119"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1080\/00048670802203442","article-title":"Symptom Subtypes of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Are They Relevant for Treatment?","volume":"42","author":"Starcevic","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(66)90083-0","article-title":"Modification of Expectations in Cases with Obsessional Rituals","volume":"4","author":"Meyer","year":"1966","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Javaherirenani, R., Mortazavi, S.S., Shalbafan, M., Ashouri, A., and Farani, A.R. (2022). Virtual Reality Exposure and Response Prevention in the Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in Patients with Contamination Subtype in Comparison with in Vivo Exposure Therapy: A Randomized Clinical Controlled Trial. BMC Psychiatry, 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-022-04402-3"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1375\/bech.21.4.251.66103","article-title":"The Superiority of Danger Ideation Reduction Therapy (DIRT) Over Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP) in Treating Compulsive Washing","volume":"21","author":"Krochmalik","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behav. Change"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(97)00042-9","article-title":"Danger Ideation Reduction Therapy (DIRT): Preliminary Findings with Three Obsessive-Compulsive Washers","volume":"35","author":"Jones","year":"1997","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.4103\/0253-7176.211754","article-title":"Efficacy of Danger Ideation Reduction Therapy in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Washer with Poor Insight: A Case Study and Literature Review","volume":"39","author":"Maqbool","year":"2017","journal-title":"Indian J. Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2021.12.029","article-title":"Symptom Provocation in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Voxel-Based Meta-Analysis and Meta-Analytic Connectivity Modeling","volume":"146","author":"Yu","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-8628(19991215)88:6<669::AID-AJMG17>3.0.CO;2-N","article-title":"Segregation Analysis of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Using Symptom-Based Factor Scores","volume":"88","author":"Leckman","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Med. Genet."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpsgos.2023.08.009","article-title":"Excessive Checking in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Neurochemical Correlates Revealed by 7T Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy","volume":"4","author":"Biria","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry Glob. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2006.05.005","article-title":"The Differential Impact of Executive Attention Dysfunction on Episodic Memory in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Patients with Checking Symptoms vs. Those with Washing Symptoms","volume":"41","author":"Omori","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2025.02.010","article-title":"A Network Analysis of Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms and Their Comorbidity with Other Disorders","volume":"183","author":"Brakoulias","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.115.164020","article-title":"Cortical Thickness in Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder: Multisite Mega-Analysis of 780 Brain Scans from Six Centres","volume":"210","author":"Fouche","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2013.13040574","article-title":"Multicenter Voxel-Based Morphometry Mega-Analysis of Structural Brain Scans in Obsessive-Compulsive Dis-order","volume":"171","author":"Alonso","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S9","DOI":"10.4103\/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_525_18","article-title":"Neuroimaging Findings in Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder: A Narrative Review to Elucidate Neurobiological Underpinnings","volume":"61","author":"Hazari","year":"2019","journal-title":"Indian J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2005.03.003","article-title":"Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Symptom Dimensions Show Specific Relationships to Psychiatric Comorbidity","volume":"135","author":"Hasler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2012.10.023","article-title":"DRD4 Gene and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Do Symptom Dimensions Have Specific Genetic Correlates?","volume":"41","author":"Taj","year":"2013","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2003.07.001","article-title":"Symmetry, Ordering and Arranging Compulsive Behaviour","volume":"42","author":"Radomsky","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.20080","article-title":"Understanding and Treating Incompleteness in Obsessive-compulsive Disorder","volume":"60","author":"Summerfeldt","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2011.11.003","article-title":"Predictors of Medium and Long-Term Outcome Following Capsulotomy for Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder: One Site May Not Fit All","volume":"22","author":"Larsson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baer, L. (1995). Cingulotomy for Intractable Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Prospective Long-Term Follow-up of 18 Patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 52.","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1995.03950170058008"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-44462007000400003","article-title":"Response of Symptom Dimensions in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder to Treatment with Citalopram or Placebo","volume":"29","author":"Stein","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(93)90094-B","article-title":"The Hoarding of Possessions","volume":"31","author":"Frost","year":"1993","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"897","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(95)00043-W","article-title":"The Value of Possessions in Compulsive Hoarding: Patterns of Use and Attachment","volume":"33","author":"Frost","year":"1995","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(95)00071-2","article-title":"A Cognitive-Behavioral Model of Compulsive Hoarding","volume":"34","author":"Frost","year":"1996","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2008.05.006","article-title":"The Status of Hoarding as a Symptom of Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder","volume":"46","author":"Abramowitz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.17816\/nb262939","article-title":"Hoarding: A New Diagnosis against the Traditional Interpretation","volume":"55","author":"Mendelevich","year":"2023","journal-title":"Case Artem L. Neurol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.neuropsych.18060148","article-title":"Repetitive Behaviors in Frontotemporal Dementia: Compulsions or Impulsions?","volume":"31","author":"Moheb","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1159\/000064812","article-title":"Obsessive-Compulsive Symptom Dimensions as Predictors of Compliance with and Response to Behaviour Therapy: Results from a Controlled Trial","volume":"71","author":"Marks","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychother. Psychosom."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4002129","article-title":"To Discard or Not to Discard: The Neural Basis of Hoarding Symptoms in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"14","author":"An","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.161.6.1038","article-title":"Cerebral Glucose Metabolism in Obsessive-Compulsive Hoarding","volume":"161","author":"Saxena","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1980","article-title":"Neural Mechanisms of Decision Making in Hoarding Disorder","volume":"69","author":"Tolin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2007.06.005","article-title":"Do Traumatic Events Influence the Clinical Expression of Compulsive Hoarding?","volume":"45","author":"Cromer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20065","article-title":"Influence of Age of Onset on Clinical Features in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"21","author":"Ertekin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"9","article-title":"The Relationship between Self-Reported and Objective Neuropsychological Impairments in Patients with Hoarding Disorder","volume":"9","author":"Moshier","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Obs. Compuls. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1017\/S1352465809990695","article-title":"The Impact of Symptomatic Hoarding in OCD and Its Treatment","volume":"38","author":"Seaman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Behav. Cogn. Psychother."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.3171\/2014.2.JNS131423","article-title":"Hoarding Symptoms and Prediction of Poor Response to Limbic System Surgery for Treatment-Refractory Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"121","author":"Gentil","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rachman, S. (1998). A Cognitive Theory of Obsessions. Behavior and Cognitive Therapy Today, Elsevier.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-008043437-7\/50017-X"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(93)90066-4","article-title":"Obsessions, Responsibility and Guilt","volume":"31","author":"Rachman","year":"1993","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20820","article-title":"Myth of the Pure Obsessional Type in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"28","author":"Williams","year":"2011","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2023.2273388","article-title":"How Does \u201cPure-O\u201d Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Impact on a Patient\u2019s Treatment Plan?","volume":"23","author":"Grassi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(01)00101-2","article-title":"Two Different Types of Obsession: Autogenous Obsessions and Reactive Obsessions","volume":"41","author":"Lee","year":"2003","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajp.2013.12.012","article-title":"Gender Differences in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Findings from a Large Indian Sample","volume":"9","author":"Cherian","year":"2014","journal-title":"Asian J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20332","article-title":"Gender Differences in Obsessive-Compulsive Symptom Dimensions","volume":"25","author":"Labad","year":"2008","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"741","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2165","article-title":"Neural correlates of moral sensitivity in obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"69","author":"Harrison","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pujol, J., Soriano-Mas, C., Alonso, P., Cardoner, N., Mench\u00f3n, J.M., Deus, J., and Vallejo, J. (2004). Mapping Structural Brain Alterations in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 61.","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.61.7.720"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.12269","article-title":"Biological Heterogeneity of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Voxel-Based Morphometric Study Based on Dimensional Assessment","volume":"69","author":"Okada","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychi-atry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2012.09.002","article-title":"Obsessive-Compulsive Symptom Dimensions Correlate to Specific Gray Matter Volumes in Treatment-Na\u00efve Patients","volume":"46","author":"Alvarenga","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1891\/0889-8391.25.3.167","article-title":"Cognitive and Clinical Characteristics of Sexual and Religious Obsessions","volume":"25","author":"Siev","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Psychother."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glazier, K., Wetterneck, C., Singh, S., and Williams, M. (2015). Stigma and Shame as Barriers to Treatment for Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders. J. Depress. Anxiety, 4.","DOI":"10.4172\/2167-1044.1000191"},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"64","article-title":"Stigma and Recognition of Different Types of Symptoms in OCD","volume":"12","author":"McCarty","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Obs. Compuls. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1007\/s10608-018-9911-z","article-title":"Emotion Regulation in Patients with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Unique Effects for Those with \u201cTaboo Thoughts\u201d","volume":"42","author":"Berman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cogn. Ther. Res."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.10.065","article-title":"Concurrent and Prospective Associations of Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms with Suicidality in Young Adults: A Genetically-Informative Study","volume":"281","author":"Krebs","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2017.05.032","article-title":"The Relation of Childhood Trauma to Suicide Ideation in Patients Suffering from Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder with Lifetime Suicide Attempts","volume":"255","author":"Khosravani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Torres, A.R., Ramos-Cerqueira, A.T.A., Ferr\u00e3o, Y.A., Fontenelle, L.F., Do Ros\u00e1rio, M.C., and Miguel, E.C. (2011). Suicidality in Obses-sive-Compulsive Disorder: Prevalence and Relation to Symptom Dimensions and Comorbid Conditions. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 72.","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.09m05651blu"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2022.07.044","article-title":"Taboo Obsessions and Their Association with Suicidality in Obsessive-Compulsive Disor-der","volume":"154","author":"Cervin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2009.06.010","article-title":"Dimensional Predictors of Response to SRI Pharmacotherapy in Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder","volume":"121","author":"Bloch","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v62n07a06","article-title":"Long-Term Follow-Up and Predictors of Clinical Outcome in Obsessive-Compulsive Patients Treated with Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Behavioral Therapy","volume":"62","author":"Alonso","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.2005.00682.x","article-title":"Symptom Dimensions in Obsessive\u2013Compulsive Disorder: Prediction of Cognitive-behavior Therapy Outcome","volume":"113","author":"Rufer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2014.06.001","article-title":"The Impact of Symptom Dimensions on Outcome for Exposure and Ritual Prevention Therapy in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"28","author":"Williams","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Page, M.J., McKenzie, J.E., Bossuyt, P.M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T.C., Mulrow, C.D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J.M., Akl, E.A., and Brennan, S.E. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews. BMJ, 372.","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/17\/8578\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:38:57Z","timestamp":1760035137000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/17\/8578"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]]},"references-count":121,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26178578"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26178578","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,3]]}}}