{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T19:55:14Z","timestamp":1789415714696,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]],"date-time":"2025-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757376000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Lupus nephritis (LN) is a serious complication of systemic lupus erythematosus that is associated with long-term morbidity and mortality. Pathomorphological findings of LN are broadly divided into proliferative lupus nephritis (PLN) and membranous lupus nephritis (MLN). PLN is characterized by diffuse global or segmental proliferative glomerulonephritis with significant infiltration of inflammatory cells. Type 1 T-helper (Th1) cells, which predominate under inflammatory conditions, and NETosis, as the process of forming neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), are key factors in the development of PLN. Meanwhile, MLN is characterized by diffuse membranous nephropathy (MN) with global granular subepithelial immune deposits. MLN patients usually experience massive proteinuria, and occasionally show an unfavorable renal prognosis despite aggressive treatment, similar to PLN patients. Intriguingly, in some instances, MLN patients do not show the general immunoserological characteristics of SLE, such as low serum complement and elevated anti-DNA antibody titers. Several reports have indicated an association between Th2 cell dominance and the development of MLN. Moreover, exostosin 1 (EXT1) and exostosin 2 (EXT2) on the glomerular basement membrane have recently been discovered as novel putative antigens for secondary MN, and have been shown to be up-regulated in patients with MLN. To date, many studies have focused on the dissimilarities between PLN and MLN. However, the reason for two polar morphological forms existing within the same disease is not completely clear. The present review addresses published observations on this topic in addition to providing our assertion regarding characteristic NETosis and glomerular EXT1\/EXT2 expressions between PLN and MLN.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26188769","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,10]],"date-time":"2025-09-10T10:27:12Z","timestamp":1757500032000},"page":"8769","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Distinction Between Proliferative Lupus Nephritis and Membranous Lupus Nephritis Based on Inflammation, NETosis, and Glomerular Exostosin"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5996-8735","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yukihiro","family":"Wada","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara 252-0374, Kanagawa, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hiroyuki","family":"Okawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara 252-0374, Kanagawa, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0300-2293","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tetsuya","family":"Abe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara 252-0374, Kanagawa, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3702-3578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kazuhiro","family":"Takeuchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara 252-0374, Kanagawa, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariko","family":"Kamata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara 252-0374, Kanagawa, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emiko","family":"Takeuchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara 252-0374, Kanagawa, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-6802-4844","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tadahiro","family":"Suenaga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Immunology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara 252-0374, Kanagawa, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Masayuki","family":"Iyoda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Showa Medical University School of Medicine, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan"},{"name":"Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Showa Medical University School of Medicine, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yasuo","family":"Takeuchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Nephrology, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara 252-0374, Kanagawa, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2110","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1100359","article-title":"Systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"365","author":"Tsokos","year":"2011","journal-title":"N. 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