{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T22:47:09Z","timestamp":1793314029295,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":273,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,13]],"date-time":"2025-09-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1757721600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Regione Campania Fondo di Rotazione","award":["183\/1987"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["183\/1987"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autoimmune diseases are characterized by dysregulated adaptive immune responses leading to chronic inflammation and tissue damage. Cytokines and growth factors play central roles in modulating immune regulation, inflammation, and tissue repair, thereby representing critical biomarkers for the enhancement of diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic monitoring. This review provides a comprehensive overview of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, as well as growth factors, emphasizing their pathogenic roles and clinical relevance across various autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and connective tissue diseases such as systemic sclerosis, Sj\u00f6gren\u2019s syndrome, and systemic lupus erythematosus. Key pro-inflammatory cytokines\u2014such as TNF-\u03b1, IL-1\u03b2, IL-6, IL-17, and IFN-\u03b3\u2014are examined regarding their contributions to disease progression and activity, alongside anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10 and IL-4, which regulate immune tolerance and inflammation resolution. Growth factors, such as TGF-\u03b2, are analyzed for their dual roles in immune modulation, fibrosis, and tissue remodeling. Cytokine signature profiles employed as diagnostic tools are discussed, together with the need for assay standardization. Advances in multiplex and omics technologies facilitating biomarker discovery are also reviewed. Finally, current and emerging therapeutic strategies targeting cytokines and growth factors, such as anti-TNF agents, IL inhibitors, anti-interferon therapies, and JAK\/STAT pathway blockers, are explored.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26188921","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T07:33:02Z","timestamp":1758007982000},"page":"8921","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Comprehensive Profiling of Cytokines and Growth Factors: Pathogenic Roles and Clinical Applications in Autoimmune Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-7548-8480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Donniacuo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cytokine Lab, Clinical Pathology Unit, Hospital Unit \u201cGaetano Fucito\u201d, 84085 Mercato San Severino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arianna","family":"Mauro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cytokine Lab, Clinical Pathology Unit, Hospital Unit \u201cGaetano Fucito\u201d, 84085 Mercato San Severino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5713-3993","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara","family":"Cardamone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery, and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via Salvador Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital \u201cSan Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d\u2019Aragona\u201d, University of Salerno, 84131 Salerno, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4523-8202","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Basile","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery, and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via Salvador Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Humanities, Philosophy and Education Sciences\/DISUFF, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6593-0132","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Manzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery, and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via Salvador Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jelena","family":"Dimitrov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery, and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via Salvador Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4676-1795","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna Lisa","family":"Cammarota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery, and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via Salvador Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6133-4483","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liberato","family":"Marzullo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery, and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via Salvador Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7318-2093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimo","family":"Triggiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery, and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via Salvador Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy"},{"name":"Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital \u201cSan Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d\u2019Aragona\u201d, University of Salerno, 84131 Salerno, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria Caterina","family":"Turco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cytokine Lab, Clinical Pathology Unit, Hospital Unit \u201cGaetano Fucito\u201d, 84085 Mercato San Severino, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Surgery, and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via Salvador Allende, 84081 Baronissi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4134-1437","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margot","family":"De Marco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cytokine Lab, Clinical Pathology Unit, Hospital Unit \u201cGaetano Fucito\u201d, 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