{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T21:12:54Z","timestamp":1789593174643,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00f3n (Instituto de Salud Carlos III, ISCIII)","award":["RD24\/0007\/0006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RD24\/0007\/0006"]}]},{"name":"Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00f3n (Instituto de Salud Carlos III, ISCIII)","award":["PI21\/00526"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI21\/00526"]}]},{"name":"Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00f3n (Instituto de Salud Carlos III, ISCIII)","award":["PI24\/00138"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI24\/00138"]}]},{"name":"Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00f3n (Instituto de Salud Carlos III, ISCIII)","award":["101080711"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101080711"]}]},{"name":"Horizon Europe program","award":["RD24\/0007\/0006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RD24\/0007\/0006"]}]},{"name":"Horizon Europe program","award":["PI21\/00526"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI21\/00526"]}]},{"name":"Horizon Europe program","award":["PI24\/00138"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PI24\/00138"]}]},{"name":"Horizon Europe program","award":["101080711"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["101080711"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Galectin-1 and -9 (Gal1\/9) are essential mediators of immune-inflammatory responses, which makes these proteins potential biomarkers for immune-mediated diseases (IMIDs), such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriasis (PS), psoriatic arthritis (PsA), inflammatory bowel disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Our aim was to evaluate plasma Gal1\/9 differences between IMID patients and healthy donors (HD). We analyzed 980 plasma samples divided into two analytical cohorts (600 discovery group and 380 validation group). Generalized linear models estimated Gal1\/9 levels, adjusting for sex, age, storage time, and plate variability. In the overall IMID group, plasma Gal1 levels were comparable to those of HD, while Gal9 levels were significantly elevated. Levels varied across individual diseases: SLE patients consistently showed the highest Gal1\/9 levels compared to both HD and other IMIDs, and RA patients had elevated Gal9 levels versus HD. Both Gal1 and Gal9 plasma levels correlated positively with higher disease activity, and Gal1 was higher in patients with longer disease duration. After adjustment for these confounders, SLE and RA patients maintained the highest Gal9 levels compared to HD. Our study demonstrates that Gal1 and Gal9 are differentially expressed across IMIDs, with particularly elevated levels in SLE, and both galectins are associated with disease activity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26189087","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T12:54:26Z","timestamp":1758200066000},"page":"9087","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Differential Expression of Galectin-1 and Galectin-9 in Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Diseases"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2013-1545","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Valero-Mart\u00ednez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-7379-9375","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marisa","family":"Pardines-Ortiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9526-2772","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuria","family":"Montes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Esteban","family":"Dauden","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dermatology Department, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6126-8786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjam\u00edn","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-Gutierrez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, Hospital Cl\u00ednico San Carlos, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Esther","family":"Garc\u00eda-Planella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology Department, Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, 08041 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0076-3529","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Gomoll\u00f3n Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Gastroenterology Department, Hospital Cl\u00ednico Universitario Lozano Blesa IIS Arag\u00f3n, CIBEREHD, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jordi","family":"Gratac\u00f3s","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Parc Tauli Hospital Universitari, I3PT-CERCA, Medicina UAB, 08208 Sabadell, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jose Javier","family":"P\u00e9rez-Venegas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Service, Hospital Universitario Virgen Macarena, 41009 Sevilla, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Antonio","family":"Jul\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, Hospital Universitari Vall d\u2019Hebron, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Marsal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, Hospital Universitari Vall d\u2019Hebron, 08035 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8779-5034","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Amalia","family":"Lamana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9096-3780","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosario","family":"Garc\u00eda-Vicu\u00f1a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9614-5199","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Isidoro","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Alvaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1580-2893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Triguero-Mart\u00ednez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rheumatology Department, Hospital Universitario La Princesa, Instituto de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria La Princesa (IIS-Princesa), 28006 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.3899\/jrheum.091461","article-title":"Epidemiology of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases: Incidence, prevalence, natural history, and comorbidities","volume":"85","author":"Guenther","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1038\/s41584-022-00814-3","article-title":"How does age determine the development of human immune-mediated arthritis?","volume":"18","author":"Degboe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.3731","article-title":"The multiple pathways to autoimmunity","volume":"18","author":"Theofilopoulos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.2006.052688","article-title":"Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs) and biologic therapy: A medical revolution","volume":"83","author":"Kuek","year":"2007","journal-title":"Postgrad. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"638","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2009.123976","article-title":"Evidence for treating rheumatoid arthritis to target: Results of a systematic literature search","volume":"69","author":"Stoffer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000870","DOI":"10.1136\/rmdopen-2018-000870","article-title":"Window of opportunity in rheumatoid arthritis\u2014Definitions and supporting evidence: From old to new perspectives","volume":"5","author":"Burgers","year":"2019","journal-title":"RMD Open"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2013-204858","article-title":"Diagnostic delay of more than 6 months contributes to poor radiographic and functional outcome in psoriatic arthritis","volume":"74","author":"Haroon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e004062","DOI":"10.1136\/rmdopen-2023-004062","article-title":"Window of opportunity in psoriatic arthritis: The earlier the better?","volume":"10","author":"Luime","year":"2024","journal-title":"RMD Open"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s40744-023-00627-0","article-title":"The Role of Early Treatment in the Management of Axial Spondyloarthritis: Challenges and Opportunities","volume":"11","author":"Mauro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Rheumatol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20807","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(17)31891-4","article-title":"Galectins. Structure and function of a large family of animal lectins","volume":"269","author":"Barondes","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/3.4.297","article-title":"The family of metazoan metal-independent beta-galactoside-binding lectins: Structure, function and molecular evolution","volume":"3","author":"Hirabayashi","year":"1993","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1186\/s12933-022-01690-7","article-title":"The interplay of galectins-1, -3, and -9 in the immune-inflammatory response underlying cardiovascular and metabolic disease","volume":"21","author":"Mansour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1093\/glycob\/cwab007","article-title":"Tissue-specific control of galectin-1-driven circuits during inflammatory responses","volume":"31","author":"Cutine","year":"2021","journal-title":"Glycobiology"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Varki, A., Cummings, R.D., Esko, J.D., Stanley, P., Hart, G.W., Aebi, M., Mohnen, D., Kinoshita, T., Packer, N.H., and Prestegard, J.H. (2022, November 21). Galectins, Essentials of Glycobiology [Internet], Available online: http:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK579987\/."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612827666210927164935","article-title":"Therapeutic Potential of Galectin-1 and Galectin-3 in Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"28","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, X., Qian, J., Ding, L., Yin, S., Zhou, L., and Zheng, S. (2023). Galectin-1: A Traditionally Immunosuppressive Protein Displays Context-Dependent Capacities. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24076501"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-022-00829-7","article-title":"The role of galectins in immunity and infection","volume":"23","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2008.01.006","article-title":"Galectin-9 suppresses the generation of Th17, promotes the induction of regulatory T cells, and regulates experimental autoimmune arthritis","volume":"127","author":"Seki","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellimm.2024.104890","article-title":"Immunomodulation by galectin-9: Distinct role in T cell populations, current therapeutic avenues and future potential","volume":"407","author":"Gossink","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Immunol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1901114","article-title":"Intracellular Galectin-9 Enhances Proximal TCR Signaling and Potentiates Autoimmune Diseases","volume":"204","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102847","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2021.102847","article-title":"Emerging role of galectin family in inflammatory autoimmune diseases","volume":"20","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Triguero-Mart\u00ednez, A., de la Fuente, H., Montes, N., Ortiz, A.M., Roy-Vallejo, E., Casta\u00f1eda, S., Gonz\u00e1lez-Alvaro, I., and Lamana, A. (2020). Validation of galectin-1 as potential diagnostic biomarker of early rheumatoid arthritis. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-74185-8"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.190.3.385","article-title":"Recombinant galectin-1 and its genetic delivery suppress collagen-induced arthritis via T cell apoptosis","volume":"190","author":"Rabinovich","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.22203\/eCM.v023a13","article-title":"Multivalent structure of galectin-1-nanogold complex serves as potential therapeutics for rheumatoid arthritis by enhancing receptor clustering","volume":"23","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Cell Mater."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3968","DOI":"10.1002\/art.23076","article-title":"Beneficial effect of galectin 9 on rheumatoid arthritis by induction of apoptosis of synovial fibroblasts","volume":"56","author":"Seki","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1873","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI97333","article-title":"Galectin-9 inhibits TLR7-mediated autoimmunity in murine lupus models","volume":"128","author":"Panda","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, T.B., Dodd, S., Yu, L.G., and Subramanian, S. (2020). Serum galectins as potential biomarkers of inflammatory bowel diseases. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227306"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alahmed, A., and Al-Rubaee, E. (2025). New insight for ulcerative colitis diagnosis via serum netrin-1 and galectin-1 biomarkers. Hum. Antibodies.","DOI":"10.1177\/10932607251349069"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nowowiejska, J., Baran, A., Hermanowicz, J.M., Sieklucka, B., Pawlak, D., and Flisiak, I. (2023). Evaluation of Plasma Concentrations of Galectins-1, 2 and 12 in Psoriasis and Their Clinical Implications. Biomolecules, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom13101472"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"654","article-title":"Expression of Galectin-9 and correlation with disease activity and vascular endothelial growth factor in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"38","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matsuoka, N., Fujita, Y., Temmoku, J., Furuya, M.Y., Asano, T., Sato, S., Matsumoto, H., Kobayashi, H., Watanabe, H., and Suzuki, E. (2020). Galectin-9 as a biomarker for disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0227069"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdelgalil, A.H., Elsharaby, R.M., Abd ElGany, S.E., and Ibrahim, W.S. (2025). EXPRESS: Assessment of serum level of galectin-9 in systemic lupus erythematosus patients in Tanta university hospitals. J. Investig. Med.","DOI":"10.1177\/10815589251333729"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humimm.2023.110741","article-title":"The elevation of plasma galectin-9 levels in patients with psoriasis and its associations with inflammatory and immune checkpoint molecules in skin tissues","volume":"85","author":"He","year":"2024","journal-title":"Hum. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.4103\/ijdvl.IJDVL_252_18","article-title":"Serum galectin-9 levels in atopic dermatitis, psoriasis and allergic contact dermatitis: A cross-sectional study","volume":"85","author":"Nofal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Indian J. Dermatol. Venereol. Leprol."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"95","article-title":"Serum galectin 3, galectin 9 and galectin 3-binding proteins in patients with active and inactive inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"70","author":"Cibor","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Triguero-Mart\u00ednez, A., Roy-Vallejo, E., Tomero, E.G., Montes, N., de la Fuente, H., Ortiz, A.M., Casta\u00f1eda, S., Lamana, A., and Gonz\u00e1lez-\u00c1lvaro, I. (2022). Galectin-1: A Potential Biomarker Differentiating between Early Rheumatoid Arthritis and Spondyloarthritis. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11216313"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.55133\/eji.300207","article-title":"Galectin-1 in Psoriatic arthritis, Psoriasis, Rheumatoid arthritis and its relation with disease activity and skin lesion","volume":"30","author":"Adly","year":"2023","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kessel, C., Lavric, M., Weinhage, T., Brueckner, M., de Roock, S., D\u00e4britz, J., Weber, J., Vastert, S.J., and Foell, D. (2021). Serum biomarkers confirming stable remission in inflammatory bowel disease. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-86251-w"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1002\/biof.1252","article-title":"A galectin-specific signature in the gut delineates Crohn\u2019s disease and ulcerative colitis from other human inflammatory intestinal disorders","volume":"42","author":"Bondar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biofactors"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mendez-Huergo, S.P., Hockl, P.F., Stupirski, J.C., Maller, S.M., Morosi, L.G., Pinto, N.A., Ber\u00f3n, A.M., Musuruana, J.L., Nasswetter, G.G., and Cavallasca, J.A. (2019). Clinical Relevance of Galectin-1 and Galectin-3 in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients: Differential Regulation and Correlation With Disease Activity. Front. Immunol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.03057"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-020-02158-3","article-title":"A Differential regulation and correlation between galectin-9 and anti-CCP antibody (ACPA) in rheumatoid arthritis patients","volume":"22","author":"Fujita","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, J., Ai, X., Jia, B., Zhong, X., Liu, L., Hu, Q., Xie, J., Hong, X., Chen, Y., and Liu, D. (2024). Galectin-9 as an indicator of functional limitations and radiographic joint damage in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1419676"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, J., Sui, Y., Wang, Y., Song, L., Li, D., Li, G., Liu, J., and Shu, Q. (2021). Galectin-9 expression correlates with therapeutic effect in rheumatoid arthritis. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-85152-2"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiersma, V.R., Clarke, A., Pouwels, S.D., Perry, E., Abdullah, T.M., Kelly, C., Soyza, A., Hutchinson, D., Eggleton, P., and Bremer, E. (2019). Galectin-9 Is a Possible Promoter of Immunopathology in Rheumatoid Arthritis by Activation of Peptidyl Arginine Deiminase 4 (PAD-4) in Granulocytes. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20164046"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nielsen, M.A., K\u00f8ster, D., Mehta, A.Y., Stengaard-Pedersen, K., Busson, P., Junker, P., H\u00f8rslev-Petersen, K., Hetland, M.L., \u00d8stergaard, M., and Hvid, M. (2023). Increased Galectin-9 Levels Correlate with Disease Activity in Patients with DMARD-Na\u00efve Rheumatoid Arthritis and Modulate the Secretion of MCP-1 and IL-6 from Synovial Fibroblasts. Cells, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells12020327"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Q., Che, Q., Zhang, X., Chen, J., Ren, C., Wu, Y., Liang, W., Zhang, X., Li, Y., and Li, Z. (2024). Knockdown of Galectin-9 alleviates rheumatoid arthritis through suppressing TNF-\u03b1-induced activation of fibroblast-like synoviocytes. Biochem. Pharmacol., 220.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2023.115994"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1810","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2018-213497","article-title":"Galectin-9 is an easy to measure biomarker for the interferon signature in systemic lupus erythematosus and antiphospholipid syndrome","volume":"77","author":"Mertens","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.1177\/09612033221082907","article-title":"Serum and urinary galectin-9 and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10","volume":"31","author":"Mehta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.55730\/1300-0144.5804","article-title":"Serum and urine interferon-inducible protein 10, galectin-9, and SIGLEC-1 as biomarkers of disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"54","author":"Varelci","year":"2024","journal-title":"Turk. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2021.105311","article-title":"Galectin 9, CXCL-10 and tumor necrosis factor receptor type II as biomarkers of disease activity in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"89","author":"Gensous","year":"2022","journal-title":"Jt. Bone Spine."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Enocsson, H., Wetter\u00f6, J., Eloranta, M.L., Gullstrand, B., Svanberg, C., Larsson, M., Bengtsson, A.A., R\u00f6nnblom, L., and Sj\u00f6wall, C. (2021). Comparison of Surrogate Markers of the Type I Interferon Response and Their Ability to Mirror Disease Activity in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.688753"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, P., Zhou, G., Lin, J., Li, L., Zeng, Z., Chen, M., and Zhang, S. (2020). Serum Biomarkers for Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Front. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.00123"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, C.F., Santos, F.A., Amorim, L.A.A., da Silva, A.L.C., Marques, L.G.A., and Rocha, B.A.M. (2024). Galectin-9 is a target for the treatment of cancer: A patent review. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 254.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2023.127768"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chou, R.H., Huang, S.S., Kuo, C.S., Wang, S.C., Tsai, Y.L., Lu, Y.W., Chang, C.C., Huang, P.H., and Lin, S.J. (2020). Galectin-1 is associated with the severity of coronary artery disease and adverse cardiovascular events in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-77804-6"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457167","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/457167","article-title":"Serum Galectin-9 Levels Are Associated with Coronary Artery Disease in Chinese Individuals","volume":"2015","author":"Zhu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"675","article-title":"Preliminary study of serum Galectin-1 in breast cancer carcinogenesis [Izmir Oncology Group (IZOG) study]","volume":"25","author":"Demir","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. BUON"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780310302","article-title":"The American Rheumatism Association 1987 revised criteria for the classification of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"31","author":"Arnett","year":"1988","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2665","DOI":"10.1002\/art.21972","article-title":"Classification criteria for psoriatic arthritis: Development of new criteria from a large international study","volume":"54","author":"Taylor","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"2","article-title":"Classification of inflammatory bowel disease","volume":"170","year":"1989","journal-title":"Scand. J. Gastroenterol. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780251101","article-title":"The 1982 revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"25","author":"Tan","year":"1982","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"S40","article-title":"The Disease Activity Score (DAS) and the Disease Activity Score using 28 joint counts (DAS28) in the management of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"34","author":"Renskers","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ad.2017.07.002","article-title":"Moderate Psoriasis: A Proposed Definition","volume":"108","author":"Notario","year":"2017","journal-title":"Actas Dermosifiliogr."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"S-99","article-title":"Assessing remission in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"24","author":"Mosca","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1097\/01.MIB.0000215091.77492.2a","article-title":"Predicting the Crohn\u2019s disease activity index from the Harvey-Bradshaw Index","volume":"12","author":"Best","year":"2006","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1097\/MIB.0b013e3182810066","article-title":"Fecal calprotectin more accurately reflects endoscopic activity of ulcerative colitis than the Lichtiger Index, C-reactive protein, platelets, hemoglobin, and blood leukocytes","volume":"19","author":"Schoepfer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/18\/9087\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:47:42Z","timestamp":1760035662000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/18\/9087"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms26189087"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms26189087","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]}}}