{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]],"date-time":"2026-09-18T04:35:53Z","timestamp":1789706153248,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":196,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758585600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation for major scientific projects in priority areas of scientific and technological development","award":["075-15-2024-638"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["075-15-2024-638"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) is a progressive, irreversible neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor impairments and a wide spectrum of non-motor symptoms, including gastrointestinal dysfunction, sleep disturbances, depression, and cognitive decline. These manifestations arise from disturbances across multiple systems\u2014gastrointestinal, neuroendocrine, immune, enteric, and central nervous systems. Alterations in the gut microbiota may play a causal role in PD onset and frequently accompany disease progression. The gut\u2013brain axis, particularly the vagus nerve, is increasingly recognized as a key communication pathway whose dysregulation contributes to systemic dysfunction and the breakdown of homeostasis, ultimately driving PD pathology. Currently, there is no cure for PD, and existing treatments primarily target symptom relief. Effective management of PD requires a comprehensive approach that integrates multiple pharmacologically active agents aimed at restoring impaired organ functions and, when possible, neutralizing toxic factors that accelerate disease progression. One promising therapeutic avenue lies in functional gut bacteria, which form the basis for developing live biotherapeutic products, postbiotics, and bacterial vesicles. In this review, we summarize current data on the effects of probiotics in PD, drawing on both animal models and clinical studies. We highlight the role of probiotics in modulating PD pathophysiology and discuss their potential as adjunctive therapeutic agents. To provide a broader perspective, we also include sections describing the clinical manifestations of PD, gut microbiota alterations associated with the disease, and the role of artificial intelligence, particularly machine learning, in constructing functional models of PD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26199290","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]],"date-time":"2025-09-23T15:54:54Z","timestamp":1758642894000},"page":"9290","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Gut Microbiome as a Source of Probiotic Drugs for Parkinson\u2019s Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Elena U","family":"Poluektova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alla","family":"Stavrovskaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Russian \u0421enter of Neurology and Neurosciences, Moscow 125367, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anastasia","family":"Pavlova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Russian \u0421enter of Neurology and Neurosciences, Moscow 125367, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6283-6258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roman","family":"Yunes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7115-8567","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Marsova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0393-8454","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tatiana","family":"Koshenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2704-6282","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergey","family":"Illarioshkin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Russian \u0421enter of Neurology and Neurosciences, Moscow 125367, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5780-0621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valery","family":"Danilenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-020-00460-0","article-title":"The gut microbiota-brain axis in behaviour and brain disorders","volume":"19","author":"Morais","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. 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