{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,21]],"date-time":"2026-10-21T15:40:44Z","timestamp":1792597244790,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":202,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]],"date-time":"2025-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759276800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pertussis is an infectious disease that contributes to hundreds of thousands of deaths worldwide each year. Despite the prevalence of preventive vaccination programs, there has been an increasing number of new cases of the disease over the past few decades. This poses a particular problem for the pediatric population among whom the highest mortality from the disease is recorded. Several reasons for this phenomenon can be mentioned, but what is particularly important from the microbiological point of view is the correlation of the increased number of pertussis cases with the introduction of a new form of vaccine\u2014the acellular vaccine in place of the whole-cell vaccine. In this review, we summarized the current state of knowledge on potential factors that may contribute to the decline in immunization efficacy against the pathogen. The post-vaccination response profile, symptomatic of vaccination with vaccination-acellular, is characterized by recruitment of Th2 and Th17 lymphocytes; it has been reported that in the long term, this results in insufficient activation of B cells and low titers of antibodies to key bacterial antigens (hemagglutinin, pertactin). Moreover, the immune response proceeds by bypassing the recruitment of tissue-resident memory T cells, resulting in a lack of protection against colonization of the nasal cavity by the bacterium despite vaccination. The decline in vaccination efficacy should also be attributed to the phenotypic variability of Bordetella. The popularization of the PtxP3 strain, characterized by its ability to incompletely activate immune mechanisms, poses a real threat to public health. The growing resistance of B. pertussis to standardly used antibiotics including macrolides also remains a problem. This makes it difficult to eradicate pathogens from the nasal cavity area and increases the pool of bacterial carriers in the population area. The increasing prevalence of the disease prompts reflection on more effective methods of prevention. Particularly promising in this field seem to be new vaccines, especially mucosally implemented, e.g., intranasal, or developed on the basis of B. pertussis antigens other than those used so far.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26199607","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]],"date-time":"2025-10-01T14:27:42Z","timestamp":1759328862000},"page":"9607","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Pertussis\u2014A Re-Emerging Threat Despite Immunization: An Analysis of Vaccine Effectiveness and Antibiotic Resistance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8559-1695","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Duda-Madej","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, Cha\u0142ubi\u0144skiego 4, 50-368 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jakub","family":"\u0141abaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, Ludwika Pasteura 1, 50-367 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6409-7006","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ewa","family":"Topola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, Ludwika Pasteura 1, 50-367 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7699-5309","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hanna","family":"Bazan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, Ludwika Pasteura 1, 50-367 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-3668-6891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Szymon","family":"Viscardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Wroclaw Medical University, Ludwika Pasteura 1, 50-367 Wroc\u0142aw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2025, May 15). 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