{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T21:26:01Z","timestamp":1792013161203,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":100,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,19]],"date-time":"2025-10-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760832000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Periodontitis is a biofilm-driven inflammatory disease in which conventional indices (probing depth, clinical attachment level, and radiographs) quantify tissue destruction without capturing the biology of infection. In this review, we synthesized microbiological diagnostics, from chairside tools to omics. We outline sampling strategies and emphasize the quantitative monitoring of bacterial load. Enzymatic assays (e.g., N-benzoyl-DL-arginine-2-naphthylamide hydrolysis assay test) measure functional activity at the point of care. Immunological methods include rapid immunochromatography for Porphyromonas gingivalis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the high-throughput measurement of bacterial antigens. Molecular platforms encompass quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) (TaqMan, SYBR, multiplex panels; propidium monoazide quantitative-qPCR for viable cells), checkerboard DNA\u2013DNA hybridization for semi-quantitative community profiling, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)\/molecular beacon-LAMP for portable isothermal detection, and microarrays. Complementary modalities such as fluorescent in situ hybridization, next-generation sequencing, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy provide spatial, ecological, and biochemical resolutions. We discuss the limitations of current approaches, including sampling bias, presence\u2013activity discordance, semi-quantitation, method biases, limited strain\/function resolution, low-biomass artifacts, and lack of validated cutoffs. To address these challenges, we propose a pragmatic hybrid strategy: site-specific quantitative panels combined with activity and host-response markers interpreted alongside clinical metrics under standardized quality assurance\/quality control. Priorities include outcome-linked thresholds, strain-aware\/functional panels, robust point-of-care chemistry, and harmonized protocols to enable personalized periodontal care.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262010172","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]],"date-time":"2025-10-20T08:18:54Z","timestamp":1760948334000},"page":"10172","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Measuring the Invisible: Microbial Diagnostics for Periodontitis\u2014A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5208-1848","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michihiko","family":"Usui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Periodontology, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suzuka","family":"Miyagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Periodontology, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"},{"name":"School of Oral Health Sciences, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rieko","family":"Yamanaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Periodontology, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuichiro","family":"Oka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Periodontology, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kaoru","family":"Kobayashi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Oral Health Sciences, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1109-196X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tsuyoshi","family":"Sato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Oral Health Sciences, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kotaro","family":"Sano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Periodontology, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Satoru","family":"Onizuka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Periodontology, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maki","family":"Inoue","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infections and Molecular Biology, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wataru","family":"Fujii","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Dysphagia Rehabilitation, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5739-2936","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Masanori","family":"Iwasaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Preventive Dentistry, Department of Oral Health Science, Graduate School of Dental Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8586, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wataru","family":"Ariyoshi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infections and Molecular Biology, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keisuke","family":"Nakashima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Dentistry, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tatsuji","family":"Nishihara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Dentistry, Kyushu Dental University, Kitakyushu 803-8580, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdsr.2021.09.005","article-title":"Mechanism of alveolar bone destruction in periodontitis\u2014Periodontal bacteria and inflammation","volume":"57","author":"Usui","year":"2021","journal-title":"Jpn. 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