{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,18]],"date-time":"2026-10-18T02:58:46Z","timestamp":1792292326756,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761004800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010609","name":"Medical University of Gda\u0144sk","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["934 01-10024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["934 01-10024"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010609","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010408","name":"Polpharma Scientific Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["1\/XX\/2021"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1\/XX\/2021"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010408","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and lupus nephritis (LN) are at increased risk of severe infections, making effective vaccination strategies essential. While antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination have been studied in SLE, less is known about innate immune correlates. Therefore, we evaluated cytokines with a particular emphasis on interferon and chemokine profiles. To fulfill the immunological picture, we also assessed neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 variants, lymphocyte subpopulations, and selected gene expression signatures in 33 patients stratified by vaccination status: fully vaccinated (FV, n = 23) and partially vaccinated (PV, n = 10). Serum analyses showed that FV patients exhibited increased type I (IFN-\u03b12, IFN-\u03b2) and type III (IFN-\u03bb1, IFN-\u03bb2\/3) interferons, as well as elevated pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1\u03b2, IL-6, TNF-\u03b1, and IL-12p70) and IL-10, whereas neutralizing antibody (Neut. Ab.) titers against wild-type and variant strains, including Omicron, were comparable between groups. Immunophenotyping demonstrated preserved T- and B-cell subset distributions, except for reduced CD8+CD197+CD45RA\u2212 (central memory) T cells in FV patients. ISG15 gene expression was upregulated in the T cells of FV patients. Correlation analyses linked IL-6 with disease activity and IL-8, GM-CSF, IFN-\u03b2, IL-10, and Alpha Neut. Ab. with organ damage. Complement C3 correlated inversely with IFN-\u03b12 and IFN-\u03b3, while C4 correlated positively with Alpha and Omicron Neut. Ab. These findings highlight that vaccination in SLE induces distinct interferon and cytokine signatures without consistent enhancement of neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2, underscoring the importance of integrated immune correlates in assessing vaccine responses in this population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262010241","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T14:53:19Z","timestamp":1761058399000},"page":"10241","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Markers of Antiviral Response in SLE Patients After Vaccination Against SARS-CoV-2"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5766-1913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Micha\u0142","family":"Komorniczak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic and Department of Nephrology, Transplantology and Internal Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-214 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6086-0024","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katarzyna Aleksandra","family":"Lisowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Clinical Immunology, Geriatrics and Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-214 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-210 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2190-2903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Bu\u0142\u0142o-Piontecka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic and Department of Nephrology, Transplantology and Internal Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-214 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8210-8063","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alicja","family":"D\u0119bska-\u015alizie\u0144","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic and Department of Nephrology, Transplantology and Internal Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-214 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4392-5594","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Wardowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Rheumatology, Clinical Immunology, Geriatrics and Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-214 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"},{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Gda\u0144sk, 80-210 Gda\u0144sk, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2307","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00850-X","article-title":"Contribution of vaccination to improved survival and health: Modelling 50 years of the Expanded Programme on Immunization","volume":"403","author":"Shattock","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20130433","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2013.0433","article-title":"The contribution of vaccination to global health: Past, present and future","volume":"369","author":"Greenwood","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1080\/08998280.2005.11928028","article-title":"Edward Jenner and the History of Smallpox and Vaccination","volume":"Volume 18","author":"Riedel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2012.00068","article-title":"Louis Pasteur, the Father of Immunology?","volume":"3","author":"Smith","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-00479-7","article-title":"A guide to vaccinology: From basic principles to new developments","volume":"21","author":"Pollard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd.2017.243","article-title":"mRNA vaccines\u2014A new era in vaccinology","volume":"17","author":"Pardi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00084-18","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00084-18","article-title":"Factors That Influence the Immune Response to Vaccination","volume":"32","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.00131-10","article-title":"Correlates of Protection Induced by Vaccination","volume":"17","author":"Plotkin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2010.137216","article-title":"EULAR recommendations for vaccination in adult patients with autoimmune inflammatory rheumatic diseases","volume":"70","author":"Elkayam","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/cit816","article-title":"Executive Summary: 2013 IDSA Clinical Practice Guideline for Vaccination of the Immunocompromised Host","volume":"58","author":"Rubin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1628","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2021-222006","article-title":"EULAR recommendations for the management and vaccination of people with rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases in the context of SARS-CoV-2: The November 2021 update","volume":"81","author":"Kroon","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2013.07.007","article-title":"Influenza and pneumococcal vaccinations of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: Current views upon safety and immunogenicity","volume":"13","author":"Murdaca","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2018.04.006","article-title":"Recommendations and barriers to vaccination in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"17","author":"Garg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1664","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kew211","article-title":"Immunogenicity and impact on disease activity of influenza and pneumococcal vaccines in systemic lupus erythematosus: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis","volume":"55","author":"Biscay","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.24824","article-title":"Impact of Distinct Therapies on Antibody Response to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus","volume":"74","author":"Yuki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1330","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2021-220647","article-title":"Immunogenicity and safety of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine in adult patients with autoimmune inflammatory rheumatic diseases and in the general population: A multicentre study","volume":"80","author":"Furer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1878","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.25094","article-title":"Effect of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Immunosuppressive Agents on COVID-19 Vaccination Antibody Response","volume":"75","author":"Petri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2018.08.002","article-title":"Immunogenicity, safety and tolerability of anti-pneumococcal vaccination in systemic lupus erythematosus patients: An evidence-informed and PRISMA compliant systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Adawi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2021-221097","article-title":"BNT162b2 vaccine-induced humoral and cellular responses against SARS-CoV-2 variants in systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"81","author":"Moyon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1002\/art.41937","article-title":"Evaluation of Immune Response and Disease Status in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Patients Following SARS\u2013CoV-2 Vaccination","volume":"74","author":"Izmirly","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1177\/09612033231164262","article-title":"The third dose of BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccine is efficacious and safe for systemic lupus erythematosus patients receiving belimumab","volume":"32","author":"Niznik","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"676","article-title":"Immunogenicity and risk of disease flare after a three-dose regimen with SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: Results from the prospective cohort study COVAC-SLE","volume":"41","author":"Larsen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1757","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keac604","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccination in systemic lupus erythematosus: A systematic review of its effectiveness, immunogenicity, flares and acceptance","volume":"62","author":"Tan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e000479","DOI":"10.1136\/lupus-2021-000479","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in patients with SLE","volume":"8","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lupus Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104282","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amsu.2022.104282","article-title":"Systematic lupus erythematous patients following COVID-19 vaccination: Its flares up and precautions","volume":"80","author":"Khatri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1080\/21645515.2015.1107685","article-title":"Vaccine-preventable infections in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus","volume":"12","author":"Murdaca","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Vaccines Immunother."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1191\/096120399678840855","article-title":"Immunisation of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: The current state of play","volume":"8","author":"Ioannou","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2012.10.004","article-title":"The pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus\u2014An update","volume":"24","author":"Choi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2020.10.014","article-title":"Type I interferon in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"67","author":"Postal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14158","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms160614158","article-title":"A Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells-Type I Interferon Axis Is Critically Implicated in the Pathogenesis of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus","volume":"16","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-101921-042422","article-title":"Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Pathogenesis: Interferon and Beyond","volume":"41","author":"Caielli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5959","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2022.08.068","article-title":"Hesitancy for SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and post-vaccination flares in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"40","author":"Mok","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerosa, M., Schioppo, T., Argolini, L.M., Sciascia, S., Ramirez, G.A., Moroni, G., Sinico, R.A., Bonelli, G., Alberici, F., and Mescia, F. (2022). The Impact of Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine in Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: A Multicentre Cohort Study. Vaccines, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines10050663"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Louthrenoo, W., Tangkum, P., Kasitanon, N., Gumtorntip, W., Winichakoon, P., Konsamun, S., and Wongthanee, A. (2024). Flares and Predicting Factors of Flares in Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Associated with Different Doses and Types of COVID-19 Vaccines. Vaccines, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines12121399"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lisowska, K.A., Ciesielska-Figlon, K., Komorniczak, M., Bu\u0142\u0142o-Piontecka, B., D\u0119bska-\u015alizie\u0144, A., and Wardowska, A. (2024). Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells and Serum Cytokines in Patients with Lupus Nephritis after COVID-19. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25158278"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/20\/10241\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]],"date-time":"2025-10-23T04:38:00Z","timestamp":1761194280000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/20\/10241"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms262010241"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms262010241","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]}}}