{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T02:03:22Z","timestamp":1791857002553,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":150,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760140800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic in cooperation with the Czech Health Research Council","award":["No. NU21-04-00305"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. NU21-04-00305"]}]},{"name":"European Union\u2013Next Generation EU","award":["No. LX22NPO5107 (MEYS)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. LX22NPO5107 (MEYS)"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) is a major cause of drug-resistant epilepsy, yet its molecular basis remains poorly understood. Numerous studies have analyzed RNA, protein, and microRNA alterations, but results are often inconsistent across subtypes and methodologies. To address this gap, we conducted a systematic review integrating transcriptomic, proteomic, and microRNA data from 117 human studies of FCD subtypes I\u2013III. Differentially expressed factors were extracted, categorized by subtype, and analyzed using pathway enrichment and network approaches. Our integrative analysis revealed convergent dysregulation of neuroinflammatory, synaptic, cytoskeletal, and metabolic pathways across FCD subtypes. Consistently altered genes, including IL1B, TLR4, BDNF, HMGCR, and ROCK2, together with dysregulated microRNAs such as hsa-miR-21-5p, hsa-miR-155-5p, and hsa-miR-132-3p, were linked to PI3K\u2013Akt\u2013mTOR, Toll-like receptor, and GABAergic signaling, emphasizing shared pathogenic mechanisms. Importantly, we identified overlapping transcript\u2013protein patterns and subtype-specific molecular profiles that may refine diagnosis and inform therapeutic strategies. This review provides the first cross-omics molecular framework of FCD, demonstrating how convergent pathways unify heterogeneous findings and offering a roadmap for biomarker discovery and targeted interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26209909","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,17]],"date-time":"2025-10-17T16:13:03Z","timestamp":1760717583000},"page":"9909","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Molecular Signature in Focal Cortical Dysplasia: A Systematic Review of RNA and Protein Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5755-0204","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jalleh","family":"Shakerzadeh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Brno Epilepsy Centre, 1st Department of Neurology, St. Anne\u2019s University Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-2391-7472","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Radim","family":"Jarou\u0161ek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brno Epilepsy Centre, 1st Department of Neurology, St. Anne\u2019s University Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic"},{"name":"Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotl\u00e1\u0159sk\u00e1 2, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3225-5641","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zita","family":"Goli\u00e1\u0161ov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brno Epilepsy Centre, 1st Department of Neurology, St. Anne\u2019s University Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7979-2343","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milan","family":"Br\u00e1zdil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brno Epilepsy Centre, 1st Department of Neurology, St. Anne\u2019s University Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, 602 00 Brno, Czech Republic"},{"name":"Behavioral and Social Neuroscience Research Group, CEITEC, Masaryk University, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"11","article-title":"Taylor\u2019s Focal Cortical Dysplasia Revisited: History, Original Specimens and Impact","volume":"2","author":"Kasper","year":"2021","journal-title":"Free Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2175","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2010.02657.x","article-title":"Infantile Spasms: A U.S. Consensus Report","volume":"51","author":"Pellock","year":"2010","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1899","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17301","article-title":"The ILAE Consensus Classification of Focal Cortical Dysplasia: An Update Proposed by an Ad Hoc Task Force of the ILAE Diagnostic Methods Commission","volume":"63","author":"Najm","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.12041","article-title":"Seven Tesla MRI Improves Detection of Focal Cortical Dysplasia in Patients with Refractory Focal Epilepsy","volume":"2","author":"Veersema","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1007\/s00381-014-2556-7","article-title":"Outcome after Epilepsy Surgery for Cortical Dysplasia in Children","volume":"30","author":"Moosa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Child\u2019s Nerv. 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