{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,5]],"date-time":"2026-09-05T04:20:25Z","timestamp":1788582025834,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":80,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760313600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Fondecyt","award":["1250678"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1250678"]}]},{"name":"Fondap-Ideal","award":["15150003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["15150003"]}]},{"name":"ANID-Millennium Science Initiative Program-Center","award":["ICN2021_002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ICN2021_002"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["UIDB\/04326\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UIDB\/04326\/2020"]}]},{"name":"FCT\u2014Foundation for Science and Technology","award":["LA\/P\/0101\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LA\/P\/0101\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rising ocean temperatures due to climate change, combined with the intensification of anthropogenic activity, may lead to changes in the physiology and distribution of native species. Compounding climate stress, microplastic particles (MPs) enter the oceans through wastewater and the breakdown of macroplastics. Depending on their composition, they can be harmful and act as a vehicle for toxic substances, although their effects on native Antarctic and subantarctic species are unknown. Notothenioid fish are members of this group and are found inside and outside Antarctica, such as the Harpagifer, which has adapted to the cold and is particularly sensitive to thermal increases. Here, we aimed to evaluate the innate immune response in the head kidney, spleen, and foregut of two notothenoid fish, Harpagifer antarcticus and Harpagifer bispinis, exposed to elevated temperatures and PVC (polyvinyl chloride) microplastics. Adults from both species were collected on King George Island (Antarctica) and Punta Arenas (Chile), respectively. Specimens were assigned to a control group or exposed to a temperature increase (TI) or PVC microplastics (MPs), separately or in combination (MPs + TI). MP exposures were oral (gavage) for 24 h or aqueous (in a bath) for 24 and 48 h. Using real-time qPCR, we evaluated the relative gene expression of markers involved in the innate immune response, including tlr2 (toll-like receptor 2), tlr4 (toll-like receptor 4), myd88 (myeloid differentiation factor 88), nfkb (nuclear factor kb), il6 (interleukin 6), and il8 (irterleukin 8). We found differences between treatments when H. antarcticus and H. bispinis were exposed independently to MPs or thermal increase (TI) in the experiment with a cannula, showing an up-regulation in transcripts. In contrast, a down-regulation was observed when exposed in combination to MP + TI, which looked to be tissue-dependent. However, transcripts related to innate immunity in the bath experiment increased when exposure to both stressors was combined, mostly at 48 h. These results highlight the importance of evaluating the effects of multiple stressors, both independently and in combination, and whether these species will have the capacity to adapt or survive under these conditions, especially in waters where temperature is increasing and pollution is also rising, primarily from MP-PVC, a plastic widely used in various industries and among the population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26209968","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]],"date-time":"2025-10-20T15:20:12Z","timestamp":1760973612000},"page":"9968","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The Immune System in Antarctic and Subantarctic Fish of the Genus Harpagifer Is Affected by the Effects of Combined Microplastics and Thermal Increase"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Daniela P.","family":"Nualart","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de Doctorado en Ciencias de la Acuicultura, Universidad Austral de Chile, Puerto Montt 5480000, Chile"},{"name":"Centro FONDAP de Investigaci\u00f3n en Din\u00e1mica de Ecosistemas Marinos de Altas Latitudes (IDEAL), Valdivia 5090000, Chile"},{"name":"Instituto Milenio Biodiversidad de Ecosistemas Ant\u00e1rticos y Subant\u00e1rticos (BASE), Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile"},{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Limnol\u00f3gicas, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5371-7919","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro M.","family":"Guerreiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Ci\u00eancias do Mar do Algarve (CCMAR\/CIMAR LA), Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kurt","family":"Paschke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro FONDAP de Investigaci\u00f3n en Din\u00e1mica de Ecosistemas Marinos de Altas Latitudes (IDEAL), Valdivia 5090000, Chile"},{"name":"Instituto Milenio Biodiversidad de Ecosistemas Ant\u00e1rticos y Subant\u00e1rticos (BASE), Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile"},{"name":"Instituto de Acuicultura, Universidad Austral de Chile, Puerto Montt 5480000, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen D.","family":"McCormick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6308-8685","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chi-Hing Christina","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Behavior, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0497-2582","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis","family":"Vargas-Chacoff","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro FONDAP de Investigaci\u00f3n en Din\u00e1mica de Ecosistemas Marinos de Altas Latitudes (IDEAL), Valdivia 5090000, Chile"},{"name":"Instituto Milenio Biodiversidad de Ecosistemas Ant\u00e1rticos y Subant\u00e1rticos (BASE), Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile"},{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Limnol\u00f3gicas, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5090000, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"41","article-title":"Macroalgas submareales de los canales interiores del Parque Nacional Bernardo O\u2019Higgins (~49\u00b0\u201351\u00b0 S), regi\u00f3n de Magallanes, Chile","volume":"46","author":"Palacios","year":"2018","journal-title":"An. 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