{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T04:30:06Z","timestamp":1787977806980,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]],"date-time":"2025-10-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761436800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cancer remains a primary global health concern, with treatment-related side effects and malnutrition posing significant challenges to patient care and recovery. In recent years, there has been growing interest in the therapeutic potential of functional food components, especially whey proteins (WPs), due to their notable antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anticancer properties. This systematic review explores the effects of WPs across various cancer types and assesses their value as supportive nutritional agents. A thorough literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases, identifying 24 relevant studies published between 2000 and 2024. The selection process followed PRISMA guidelines. The evidence, drawn from both laboratory and clinical research, suggests that WPs may exert anticancer effects by inhibiting tumor cell growth, promoting apoptosis, enhancing antioxidant defenses, modulating immune activity, and influencing signaling pathways such as the PI3K\/Akt, mTOR, and Wnt\/\u03b2-catenin pathways. Colorectal, breast, and liver cancers emerged as the most extensively studied types. Additionally, the form of WP used\u2014whether concentrate, isolate, or hydrolysate\u2014appeared to influence both biological activity and clinical outcomes. Clinical findings suggest that WP supplementation may support nutritional status, mitigate the adverse effects of chemotherapy, and enhance the quality of life in cancer patients. While the preclinical data are compelling, further high-quality randomized controlled trials are needed to confirm these benefits and determine optimal use in clinical practice. This review highlights WPs as promising, well-tolerated nutritional agents with potential to enhance current cancer care strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262110406","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T00:51:42Z","timestamp":1761526302000},"page":"10406","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Anticancer Potential of Whey Proteins\u2014A Systematic Review of Bioactivity and Functional Mechanisms"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1192-1572","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Selin","family":"Elmas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Uludag University, Bursa 16059, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7570-4200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Meliha","family":"F\u0131nd\u0131k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Bal\u0131kesir \u00dcniversity, Bal\u0131kesir 10010, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramazan","family":"K\u0131yak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Bal\u0131kesir \u00dcniversity, Bal\u0131kesir 10010, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G\u00f6khan","family":"Ta\u015fk\u0131n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Emergency Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Bal\u0131kesir \u00dcniversity, Bal\u0131kesir 10010, Turkey"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniela","family":"C\u00eer\u021b\u00een\u0103","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medical and Behavioral Sciences, \u201cConstantin Brancusi\u201d University of T\u00e2rgu-Jiu, 210135 Targu Jiu, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rodica","family":"D\u00eernu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medical and Behavioral Sciences, \u201cConstantin Brancusi\u201d University of T\u00e2rgu-Jiu, 210135 Targu Jiu, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natalia","family":"Gu\u021b\u0103","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medical and Behavioral Sciences, \u201cConstantin Brancusi\u201d University of T\u00e2rgu-Jiu, 210135 Targu Jiu, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roxana-Maria","family":"Mecu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medical and Behavioral Sciences, \u201cConstantin Brancusi\u201d University of T\u00e2rgu-Jiu, 210135 Targu Jiu, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Monica-Delia","family":"B\u00eec\u0103","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medical and Behavioral Sciences, \u201cConstantin Brancusi\u201d University of T\u00e2rgu-Jiu, 210135 Targu Jiu, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"209","article-title":"Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries","volume":"71","author":"Sung","year":"2021","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1566","DOI":"10.1002\/ijc.35516","article-title":"Future of population-based cancer registries: A global perspective\u2014A survey of population-based cancer registries","volume":"157","author":"Giannopoulos","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clemente-Su\u00e1rez, V.J., Redondo-Fl\u00f3rez, L., Rubio-Zarapuz, A., Mart\u00ednez-Guardado, I., Navarro-Jim\u00e9nez, E., and Tornero-Aguilera, J.F. (2022). Nutritional and Exercise Interventions in Cancer-Related Cachexia: An Extensive Narrative Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19084604"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Braha, A., Albai, A., Timar, B., Negru, \u0218., Sorin, S., Roman, D., and Popovici, D. (2022). Nutritional Interventions to Improve Cachexia Outcomes in Cancer\u2014A Systematic Review. Medicina, 58.","DOI":"10.3390\/medicina58070966"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2088","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2022.2121256","article-title":"The effectiveness of whey proteins in prevention and treatment of cancer: A review","volume":"64","author":"Thampy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713S","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2007.10719652","article-title":"Emerging Health Properties of Whey Proteins and Their Clinical Implications","volume":"26","author":"Krissansen","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.26444\/aaem\/116095","article-title":"The anticarcinogenic potential of milk fat","volume":"27","author":"Cichosz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Agric. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15436\/2377-0902.16.026","article-title":"Protection Against Dimethylbenz[a] Anthracene-Induced Breast Cancer in Female Rats by \u03b1-Lactalbumin","volume":"3","author":"Roy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Cancer Oncol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1007\/s12393-022-09330-2","article-title":"Separation Technologies for Whey Protein Fractionation","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Eng. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11785","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2024-25321","article-title":"\u03b2-Lactoglobulin separation from whey protein: A comprehensive review of isolation and purification techniques and future perspectives","volume":"107","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"612","DOI":"10.1089\/jmf.2017.4080","article-title":"Whey Protein Supplementation Improves Nutritional Status, Glutathione Levels, and Immune Function in Cancer Patients: A Randomized, Double-Blind Controlled Trial","volume":"21","author":"Bumrungpert","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Food"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/1534735419866920","article-title":"Clinical Impact of Highly Purified, Whey Proteins in Patients Affected With Colorectal Cancer Undergoing Chemotherapy: Preliminary Results of a Placebo-Controlled Study","volume":"18","author":"Mazzuca","year":"2019","journal-title":"Integr. Cancer Ther."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herrera-Mart\u00ednez, A.D., Navas Romo, A., Le\u00f3n-Idougourram, S., Mu\u00f1oz-Jim\u00e9nez, C., Rodr\u00edguez-Alonso, R., Garc\u00eda, G.M., Camacho-Cardenosa, M., Casado-Diaz, A., G\u00e1lvez-Moreno, M.\u00c1., and Puertas, M.J.M. (2024). Systemic Systemic Inflammation in Oncologic Patients Undergoing Systemic Treatment and Receiving Whey Protein-Based Nutritional Support. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25115821"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2007.07.005","article-title":"Bovine whey proteins\u2014Overview on their main biological properties","volume":"40","author":"Madureira","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cutone, A., Rosa, L., Ianiro, G., Lepanto, M.S., Di Patti, M.C.B., Valenti, P., and Musci, G. (2020). Lactoferrin\u2019s anti-cancer properties: Safety, selectivity, and wide range of action. Biomolecules, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom10030456"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12961","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2023.2258970","article-title":"Unlocking the potential of milk whey protein components in colorectal cancer prevention and therapy","volume":"64","author":"Xiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1007\/s44187-024-00171-y","article-title":"Impact of whey protein supplementation as adjuvant therapy on malnourished cancer patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"4","author":"Rabie","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Food"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2006.12.005","article-title":"Reduction of tumorigenesis and invasion of human breast cancer cells by whey acidic protein (WAP)","volume":"252","author":"Nukumi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1007\/s10989-022-10436-8","article-title":"Antiproliferative Activity of Whey and Casein Bioactive Peptides on Breast Cancer: An In Vitro and In Silico Study","volume":"28","author":"Sahna","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Pept. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, S.H., Tseng, Y.M., Wu, S.H., Tsai, S.M., and Tsai, L.Y. (2017). Whey Protein Concentrate Renders MDA-MB-231 Cells Sensitive to Rapamycin by Altering Cellular Redox State and Activating GSK3\u03b2\/mTOR Signaling. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-14159-5"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3047","DOI":"10.1007\/s13346-022-01169-8","article-title":"Development of doxorubicin hydrochloride\u2013loaded whey protein nanoparticles and its surface modification with N-acetyl cysteine for triple-negative breast cancer","volume":"12","author":"Singh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drug Deliv. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112849","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2023.112849","article-title":"Whey protein isolate attenuates depression-like behavior developed in a mouse model of breast tumor","volume":"169","author":"Xia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.36347\/sasjm.2022.v08i08.006","article-title":"Cytotoxic Activity of Whey Protein on Breast Cancer Cell in Vitro","volume":"8","author":"Durak","year":"2022","journal-title":"SAS J. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1080\/01635581.2015.1055370","article-title":"Whey Protein Hydrolysate but not Whole Whey Protein Protects Against 7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-Induced Mammary Tumors in Rats","volume":"67","author":"Ronis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nutr. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foohum.2023.12.007","article-title":"Emerging potential of whey proteins in prevention of cancer","volume":"2","author":"Ramani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Food Humanit."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1002\/tox.22773","article-title":"Antihepatocarcinogenic activity of whey protein concentrate and lactoferrin in diethylnitrosamine-treated male albino mice","volume":"34","author":"Mohammed","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2020.109450","article-title":"Antiproliferative and apoptotic effects of probiotic whey dairy beverages in human prostate cell lines","volume":"137","author":"Rosa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2021.01.034","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms underlying antitumor activity of camel whey protein against multiple myeloma cells","volume":"28","author":"Badr","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"152","article-title":"Milk whey proteins and onion extract powder interactions-antimicrobial and anticancer activities","volume":"24","author":"Ali","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Agroaliment. Process. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327914NC382_9","article-title":"Enhancing effect of patented whey protein isolate (Immunocal) on cytotoxicity of an anticancer drug","volume":"38","author":"Tsai","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nutr. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0307.12935","article-title":"Recent advances in whey processing and valorisation: Technological and environmental perspectives","volume":"76","author":"Buchanan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Dairy Technol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.12911\/22998993\/169505","article-title":"Whey Valorization\u2014Innovative Strategies for Sustainable Development and Value-Added Product Creation","volume":"24","author":"Soumati","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Ecol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharma, R. (2019). Whey Proteins in Functional Foods. Whey Proteins: From Milk to Medicine, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-812124-5.00018-7"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, D., Yuan, Y., Xiong, J., Zeng, Q., Gan, Y., Jiang, K., and Xie, N. (2024). Anti-breast cancer effects of dairy protein active peptides, dairy products, and dairy protein-based nanoparticles. Front. Pharmacol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2024.1486264"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murali, C., Mudgil, P., Gan, C.Y., Tarazi, H., El-Awady, R., Abdalla, Y., Amin, A., and Maqsood, S. (2021). Camel whey protein hydrolysates induced G2\/M cellcycle arrest in human colorectal carcinoma. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-86391-z"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.56484\/iamr.1162647","article-title":"Cytoxic Effect Levels Of Sheep Whey Protein in Colorectal Adenocarcinoma Cell Line (Caco-2)","volume":"14","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.201000074","article-title":"Peptides from water buffalo cheese whey induced senescence cell death via ceramide secretion in human colon adenocarcinoma cell line","volume":"55","author":"Ferranti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327914nc5502_8","article-title":"Tumor-protective and tumor-promoting actions of dietary whey proteins in an N-methyl-N-nitrosourea model of rat mammary carcinogenesis","volume":"55","author":"Eason","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nutr. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1007\/s12253-012-9509-9","article-title":"Whey protein versus whey protein hydrolyzate for the protection of azoxymethane and dextran sodium sulfate induced colonic tumors in rats","volume":"18","author":"Attaallah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pathol. Oncol. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cacciola, N.A., Salzano, A., D\u2019Onofrio, N., Venneri, T., Cicco, P.D., Vinale, F., Petillo, O., Martano, M., Maiolino, P., and Neglia, G. (2022). Buffalo Milk Whey Activates Necroptosis and Apoptosis in a Xenograft Model of Colorectal Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23158464"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"555","article-title":"KPS Dietary Whey Protein Protects against Azoxymethane-induced Colon Tumors in Male Rats 1","volume":"10","author":"Hakkak","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.5472\/marumj.1244676","article-title":"Effect of whey protein derivatives on cell viability, cell migration and cell cycle phases in MCF-7 cells","volume":"36","author":"Aksoy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Marmara Med. J."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Study of Nutraceutical Effects of the Whey Zonar and of Lyophilized Concentrate Obtained from Zonar in C26 Colon Carcinoma Grafted Subcutaneously in Balb\/C Mice","volume":"79","author":"Dreanca","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bull. Univ. Agric. Sci. Vet. Med. Cluj-Napoca Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u2019Onofrio, N., Martino, E., Balestrieri, A., Mele, L., Neglia, G., Balestrieri, M.L., and Campanile, G. (2021). SIRT3 and Metabolic Reprogramming Mediate the Antiproliferative Effects of Whey in Human Colon Cancer Cells. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13205196"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1186\/s12964-023-01271-5","article-title":"Chemopreventive effect of a milk whey by-product derived from Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in protecting from colorectal carcinogenesis","volume":"21","author":"Cacciola","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Commun. Signal."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Taghipour, M.J., Ezzatpanah, H., and Ghahderijani, M. (2023). In vitro and in silico studies for the identification of anti-cancer and antibacterial peptides from camel milk protein hydrolysates. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0288260"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4275","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.16724","article-title":"Antitumor activity of a whey peptide-based enteral diet in C26 colon tumor-bearing mice","volume":"88","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2010-3629","article-title":"The effect of bovine milk lactoferrin on human breast cancer cell lines","volume":"94","author":"Duarte","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.3945\/jn.109.119222","article-title":"A Diet Containing Whey Protein, Free Glutamine, and Transforming Growth Factor-\u03b2 Ameliorates Nutritional Outcome and Intestinal Mucositis during Repeated Chemotherapeutic Challenges in Rats","volume":"140","author":"Boukhettala","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3370","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/134.12.3370","article-title":"Dietary Exposure to Whey Proteins Alters Rat Mammary Gland Proliferation, Apoptosis, and Gene Expression during Postnatal Development","volume":"134","author":"Eason","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"112","article-title":"Nutritional and Medical Perspectives of Whey Protein: A Historical Overview","volume":"7","author":"Khan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Care"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martino, E., Balestrieri, A., Mele, L., Sardu, C., Marfella, R., D\u2019onofrio, N., Campanile, G., and Balestrieri, M.L. (2022). Milk Exosomal miR-27b Worsen Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Mediated Colorectal Cancer Cell Death. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14235081"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/21\/10406\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T01:00:26Z","timestamp":1761526826000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/21\/10406"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms262110406"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms262110406","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,26]]}}}