{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T07:37:03Z","timestamp":1761550623201,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761523200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of Health (Ricerca Corrente Linea 1","award":["COVID-2020-12371735","COVID-2020-12371817"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["COVID-2020-12371735","COVID-2020-12371817"]}]},{"name":"project 8.1 A"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Long COVID (LC) is characterized by a wide range of symptoms, the causes of which remain unclear. We investigated associations between inflammatory and coagulation factors, adaptive immune response to SARS-CoV-2, and LC. We enrolled 196 unvaccinated individuals with SARS-CoV-2 (March\u2013June 2020). Blood samples were collected at three (T3M) and twelve (T12M) months post infection. Plasma concentrations of coagulation factors (D-Dimer, E-Selectin, ICAM-1, VCAM-1) and inflammatory markers (IL-6, IL-8, TNF-\u03b1, IL-1\u03b2) were measured by ELISA, and SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell response was assessed by Elispot. LC occurred in 66\/196 patients (34%); 77.8% had been hospitalized. Respiratory symptoms were present in 54%, fatigue in 30%, and neuropsychological symptoms in 14%. At T3M, hospitalized patients exhibited higher levels of ICAM-1, VCAM-1, and IL-6, along with increased immunoreactivity. LC patients exhibited elevated IL-8 and TNF-\u03b1 and enhanced immunoreactivity at T3M, though these differences were not observed at T12M. Inflammatory and coagulation markers were altered at three months after acute infection, with some changes persisting at one year, suggesting a long-term immunological impact of SARS-CoV-2 on the inflammatory response. A SARS-CoV-2-specific T-cell response was still detectable at T12M, albeit at a lower level than at T3M, suggesting the persistence of protective memory T-cells beyond the acute phase.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262110412","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T07:31:58Z","timestamp":1761550318000},"page":"10412","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Inflammatory Milieu and Specific T-Cell Response Observed Three Months and One Year After SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Long COVID Subjects"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2659-0868","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleonora","family":"Cimini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6944-0686","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandra","family":"Vergori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HIV\/AIDS Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6949-3876","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Cimaglia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Epidemiology Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5773-7781","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eleonora","family":"Tartaglia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7692-6606","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Notari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0640-8667","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Colavita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2948-4243","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulia","family":"Matusali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1944-662X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ilaria","family":"Mastrorosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HIV\/AIDS Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0240-7504","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentina","family":"Mazzotta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HIV\/AIDS Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pierangelo","family":"Chinello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8928-8183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Mencarini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2481-6621","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria Letizia","family":"Giancola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Amina","family":"Abdeddaim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rita","family":"Casetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Germana","family":"Grassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Simona","family":"Gili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Flavia","family":"Cristofanelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7489-5271","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabrizio","family":"Maggi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Virology and Biosafety Laboratories, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7342-0263","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierluca","family":"Piselli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Epidemiology Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8182-5896","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Enrico","family":"Girardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scientific Direction, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2121-4684","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Antinori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HIV\/AIDS Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6624-7917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Camici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HIV\/AIDS Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases \u201cLazzaro Spallanzani\u201d IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.3947\/ic.2024.0024","article-title":"Updated Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Long COVID","volume":"56","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infect. Chemother."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"101762","article-title":"The prevalence and long-term health effects of Long COVID among hospitalised and non-hospitalised populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"55","author":"Routen","year":"2022","journal-title":"EClinicalMedicine"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bohmwald, K., Diethelm-Varela, B., Rodr\u00edguez-Guilarte, L., Rivera, T., Riedel, C.A., Gonz\u00e1lez, P.A., and Kalergis, A.M. (2024). Pathophysiological, immunological, and inflammatory features of long COVID: Review. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1341600"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"428","article-title":"Risk factors associated with long COVID syndrome: A retrospective study","volume":"46","author":"Akbari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Iran. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanepe.2021.100122","article-title":"Post-COVID syndrome in non-hospitalized patients with COVID-19: A longitudinal prospective cohort study","volume":"6","author":"Augustin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health Eur."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2021.106602","article-title":"Complications after discharge with COVID-19 infection and risk factors associated with development of post-COVID pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"188","author":"Aul","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resinv.2021.05.014","article-title":"Computed tomography at every step: Long coronavirus disease","volume":"59","author":"Aydin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Respir. Investig."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e069676","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj-2021-069676","article-title":"Trajectory of long COVID symptoms after COVID-19 vaccination: Community-based cohort study","volume":"377","author":"Ayoubkhani","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1007\/s10456-023-09878-5","article-title":"Damage to endothelial barriers and its contribution to long COVID","volume":"27","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Angiogenesis"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2546","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.15490","article-title":"Persistent endotheliopathy in the pathogenesis of Long COVID syndrome","volume":"19","author":"Fogarty","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1002\/ajh.26575","article-title":"Hypercoagulability, endotheliopathy, and inflammation approximating 1 year after recovery: Assessing the long-term outcomes in COVID-19 patients","volume":"97","author":"Fan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1080\/17474086.2023.2288154","article-title":"Long-term hypercoagulability, endotheliopathy and inflammation following acute SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"16","author":"Boccatonda","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Hematol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e64909","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.64909","article-title":"Convalescent COVID-19 patients are susceptible to endothelial dysfunction due to persistent immune activation","volume":"10","author":"Chioh","year":"2021","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1276","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.121.320460","article-title":"Vascular dysfunction of COVID-19 is partially reverted in the long-term","volume":"130","author":"Zanoli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1916","DOI":"10.1002\/ejhf.2326","article-title":"Association of COVID-19 with impaired endothelial glycocalyx, vascular function and myocardial deformation 4 months after infection","volume":"23","author":"Lambadiari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2025.110502","article-title":"Hyper-reactivity of CD8+ T cells and high expression of IL-3 correlates with occurrence and severity of Long-COVID","volume":"277","author":"Renner","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2022.100663","article-title":"The IL-1beta, IL-6, and TNF-alpha cytokine triad is associated with post-acute sequelae of COVID-19","volume":"3","author":"Schulthei","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-021-01113-x","article-title":"Immunological dysfunction persists for 8 months following initial mild-to-moderate SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"23","author":"Phetsouphanh","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1839","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiab490","article-title":"Markers of Immune Activation and Inflammation in Individuals With Postacute Sequelae of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Infection","volume":"224","author":"Peluso","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alfaro, E., D\u00edaz-Garc\u00eda, E., Garc\u00eda-Tovar, S., Galera, R., Casitas, R., Torres-Vargas, M., L\u00f3pez-Fern\u00e1ndez, C., A\u00f1\u00f3n, J.M., Garc\u00eda-R\u00edo, F., and Cubillos-Zapata, C. (2024). Endothelial dysfunction and persistent inflammation in severe post-COVID-19 patients: Implications for gas exchange. BMC Med., 22.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-024-03461-5"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1971","DOI":"10.23812\/20-1-E","article-title":"Coronavirus-19 (SARS-CoV-2) induces acute severe lung inflammation via IL-1 causing cytokine storm in COVID-19: A promising inhibitory strategy","volume":"34","author":"Conti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1007\/s11239-020-02130-7","article-title":"Evaluation of coagulation function by rotation thromboelastometry in critically ill patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia","volume":"50","author":"Pavoni","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Thrombolysis"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0040-1713152","article-title":"Pharmacological Agents Targeting Thromboinflammation in COVID-19: Review and Implications for Future Research","volume":"120","author":"Bikdeli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.120.317803","article-title":"Platelet and Vascular Biomarkers Associate With Thrombosis and Death in Coronavirus Disease","volume":"127","author":"Barrett","year":"2020","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2015432","article-title":"Pulmonary Vascular Endothelialitis, Thrombosis, and Angiogenesis in COVID-19","volume":"383","author":"Ackermann","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2033","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2020006000","article-title":"COVID-19 and its implications for thrombosis and anticoagulation","volume":"135","author":"Connors","year":"2020","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.2020006520","article-title":"COVID-19 and coagulation: Bleeding and thrombotic manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"136","author":"Karp","year":"2020","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehmann, A., Prosch, H., Zehetmayer, S., Gysan, M.R., Bernitzky, D., Vonbank, K., Idzko, M., and Gompelmann, D. (2021). Impact of persistent D-dimer elevation following recovery from COVID-19. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0258351"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e28774","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.28774","article-title":"Prolonged inflammation in patients hospitalized for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) resolves 2 years after infection","volume":"95","author":"Fong","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-021-00819-6","article-title":"Endothelial dysfunction contributes to severe COVID-19 in combination with dysregulated lymphocyte responses and cytokine networks","volume":"6","author":"Ruhl","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2021.01.007","article-title":"Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV and COVID-19","volume":"184","author":"Sette","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.108728","article-title":"Early induction of functional SARS-CoV-specific T cells Associates with rapid viral clearance and mild disease in COVID-19 patients","volume":"34","author":"Tan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Littlefield, K.M., Watson, R.O., Schneider, J.M., Neff, C.P., Yamada, E., Zhang, M., Campbell, T.B., Falta, M.T., Jolley, S.E., and Fontenot, A.P. (2022). SARS-CoV-specific T cells associate with inflammation and reduced lung function in pulmonary post-acute Sequalae of SARS-CoV. PLoS Pathog., 18.","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.02.14.480317"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiech, M., Chroscicki, P., Swatler, J., Stepnik, D., De Biasi, S., Hampel, M., Brewinska-Olchowik, M., Maliszewska, A., Sklinda, K., and Durlik, M. (2022). Remodeling of T cell Dynamics during long COVID is dependent on severity of SARS-CoV infection. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.886431"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109518","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2021.109518","article-title":"Long-term SARS-CoV-2-specific immune and inflammatory responses in individuals recovering from COVID-19 with and without post-acute symptoms","volume":"36","author":"Peluso","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sj\u00f6wall, J., Hjorth, M., Gustafsson, A., G\u00f6ransson, R., Larsson, M., Waller, H., Nordgren, J., Nilsdotter-Augustinsson, A., and Nystr\u00f6m, S. (2022). SARS-CoV-2 Specific Antibody Response and T Cell-Immunity in Immunocompromised Patients up to Six Months Post COVID: A Pilot Study. J. Clin. Med., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11123535"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis, H.E., McCorkell, L., Vogel, J.M., and Topol, E.J. (2023). Author correction: Long COVID: Major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nat. Rev. Microbiol., 21.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-023-00896-0"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palladini, M., Mazza, M.G., Bravi, B., Bessi, M., Lorenzi, M.C., Spadini, S., De Lorenzo, R., Rovere-Querini, P., Furlan, R., and Benedetti, F. (2025). Sex-Specific Inflammatory Profiles Affect Neuropsychiatric Issues in COVID-19 Survivors. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15040600"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"jiaf211","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiaf211","article-title":"Immune disturbances in individuals with post-COVID syndrome are not characterized by enhanced SARS-CoV--specific immunity","volume":"232","author":"Ober","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2024.110267","article-title":"Imbalance of SARS-CoV--specific CCR6+ and CXCR3 + CD4 + T cells and IFN-gamma + CD8+ T cells in patients with Long-COVID","volume":"264","author":"Marcos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1038\/s41590-023-01724-6","article-title":"Long COVID manifests with T cell dysregulation, inflammation and an uncoordinated adaptive immune response to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"25","author":"Yin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guerrera, G., Sambucci, M., Timperi, E., Picozza, M., Misiti, A., Placido, R., Corbisiero, S., D\u2019Orso, S., Termine, A., and Fabrizio, C. (2025). Identification of an immunological signature of long COVID syndrome. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1502937"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611.e9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmi.2021.11.002","article-title":"Female gender is associated with long COVID syndrome: A prospective cohort study","volume":"28","author":"Bai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Camici, M., Del Duca, G., Brita, A.C., and Antinori, A. (2024). Connecting dots of long COVID-19 pathogenesis: A vagus nerve- hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenal-mitochondrial axis dysfunction. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2024.1501949"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Proal, A.D., and VanElzakker, M.B. (2021). Long COVID or post-acute sequelae of COVID-19 (PASC): An overview of biological factors that may contribute to persistent symptoms. Front. Microbiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.698169"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"2249146","article-title":"Gut microbiota from patients with mild COVID-19 cause alterations in mice that resemble post-COVID syndrome","volume":"15","year":"2022","journal-title":"Res. Sq."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.01.014","article-title":"Multiple early factors anticipate post-acute COVID-19 sequelae","volume":"185","author":"Su","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtauto.2021.100100","article-title":"Functional autoantibodies against G-protein coupled receptors in patients with persistent long-COVID-19 symptoms","volume":"4","author":"Wallukat","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Transl. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arthur, J.M., Forrest, J.C., Boehme, K.W., Kennedy, J.L., Owens, S., Herzog, C., Liu, J., and Harville, T.O. (2021). Development of ACE2 autoantibodies after SARS-CoV-2 infection. PLoS ONE, 16, Correction in PLoS ONE 2024, 19, e0314426.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0314426"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abm2052","article-title":"Nervous system consequences of COVID-19","volume":"375","author":"Spudich","year":"2022","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"(2025, June 15). Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/europe\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/item\/post-COVID-19-condition."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21501319241254751","DOI":"10.1177\/21501319241254751","article-title":"Pro Inflammatory Cytokines Profiles of Patients With Long COVID Differ Between Variant Epochs","volume":"15","author":"Ganesh","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Prim. Care Community Health"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/21\/10412\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]],"date-time":"2025-10-27T07:32:31Z","timestamp":1761550351000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/21\/10412"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms262110412"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms262110412","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,27]]}}}