{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T07:12:15Z","timestamp":1761894735007,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":137,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761696000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Antibiotics have been traditionally used to treat patients with infectious diseases. However, recent investigations have highlighted their immunomodulating features. Additionally, they have been used to treat patients with rheumatologic diseases of proven infectious etiology. Thus, an emerging body of literature is developing on the potential role of antibiotics in managing patients with rheumatologic diseases, which are primarily characterized by autoimmune-driven inflammation. We critically review the potential use of antibiotics in rheumatology, focusing on both their direct antimicrobial actions and immunomodulatory effects. We also examine the potential clinical applications, underlying pharmacological mechanisms, controversies, and future research directions. Databases of biomedical research (PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane) and Google Scholar were searched. The critical evaluation of the available data suggests that antibiotics should be used only for patients with rheumatologic diseases with a clear infectious etiology. These indications are the treatment and prevention of recurrence of rheumatic fever, Whipple\u2019s disease, and early Lyme disease. Additionally, antibiotics may be considered for early administration in patients with reactive arthritis. Until data from robust clinical trials support the consideration of antibiotics in other rheumatologic diseases, beyond those with a clear infectious etiology, clinicians should follow the internationally relevant guidelines and avoid their use in treating such diseases in this patient population. Further studies may offer additional data for using antibiotics in treating patients with additional rheumatologic diseases, especially in cases where conventional treatments have inadequate effectiveness or are associated with considerable adverse events.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262110527","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T17:38:22Z","timestamp":1761759502000},"page":"10527","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Antibiotics for Rheumatologic Diseases: A Critical Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Matthew E.","family":"Falagas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Alfa Institute of Biomedical Sciences, 9 Neapoleos Street, Marousi, 151 23 Athens, Greece"},{"name":"School of Medicine, European University Cyprus, 2404 Nicosia, Cyprus"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Panagiotis","family":"Stathopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alfa Institute of Biomedical Sciences, 9 Neapoleos Street, Marousi, 151 23 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dimitrios S.","family":"Kontogiannis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Alfa Institute of Biomedical Sciences, 9 Neapoleos Street, Marousi, 151 23 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-1206-6202","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iva D.","family":"Tzvetanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, European University Cyprus, 2404 Nicosia, Cyprus"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GBD 2017 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators (2018). 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