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The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a pivotal role in mediating such resistance through multifaceted mechanisms involving cellular, metabolic, mechanical, and microbial components. This review systematically examines how the TME contributes to immunotherapy failure. We compare resistance mechanisms common to both immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapies, two cornerstone modalities in clinical practice. Furthermore, we discuss emerging strategies designed to overcome these barriers, including immune microenvironment, stromal normalization, metabolic modulation, and microbiota engineering. By integrating recent preclinical and clinical insights, this review aims to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding and targeting microenvironmental resistance, ultimately facilitating the translation of novel combination therapies into improved patient outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262110547","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T01:23:59Z","timestamp":1761873839000},"page":"10547","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Soil and Seed: Tumor Microenvironment Nurtures Immunotherapy Resistance and Renewal"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-7773-0318","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yiya","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & National Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterials and Digital Medical Devices, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-4022-4307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qiushi","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & National Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterials and Digital Medical Devices, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-3572-8787","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yangyang","family":"Xia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & National Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterials and Digital Medical Devices, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4059-5710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lingzi","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & National Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterials and Digital Medical Devices, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1461-695X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shang","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology & National Center for Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & National Engineering Research Center of Oral Biomaterials and Digital Medical Devices, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1182\/blood.V68.2.493.493","article-title":"Treatment of Hairy Cell Leukemia with Recombinant Alpha-Interferon","volume":"68","author":"Quesada","year":"1986","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/S1521-6926(02)00084-1","article-title":"Interferon in the Treatment of Hairy-Cell Leukemia","volume":"16","author":"Ahmed","year":"2003","journal-title":"Best Pract. 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