{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T02:52:49Z","timestamp":1771037569936,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761868800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"European Union Next-Generation EU","award":["CN00000022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CN00000022"]}]},{"name":"Spoke8"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A low-scale Food Waste Compost (FWC1), characterized by optimal physic-chemical parameters and high organic matter percentages, was used as a fertilizer and a bio-stimulant for vegetable plants. Groups of treated plants were inoculated with active juveniles of root-knot nematodes to detect the effect on plant defense. Optimal amounts of compost mixed with soil increased plant biomass 30% compared to untreated plants. Moreover, when plants were inoculated, treated roots contained about 50% less sedentary forms (SFs) of nematodes and a lower reproduction rate of the parasites than untreated plants. Although the performance of FWC1 as defense activator was similar to other microbiome-generating commercial formulations, the compost was found to be the best fertilizer in both un- and inoculated plants. Diffuse root colonization by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) was observed after treatments with FWC1. FWC1 water extracts did not show any toxic effect on living nematode juveniles. Expression of the marker gene of immune response PR4b was found to be 3\u20135-fold higher in the roots of inoculated plants treated with FWC1 with respect to untreated plants, thus indicating that FWC1 primes plants against RKNs (root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid White) Chitw). Data are reported to associate immunization of plants with mycorrhization occurring in FWC1-treated plants. The proposed compost is indicated as having optimal performance both as a bio-fertilizer and a bio-stimulant.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262110606","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T07:29:42Z","timestamp":1761895782000},"page":"10606","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Food Waste Compost as a Tool of Microbiome-Assisted Agri-Culture for Sustainable Protection of Vegetable Crops Against Soil-Borne Parasites"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2636-3419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paola","family":"Leonetti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Agricultural and Food Sciences, Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, Bari Unit, CNR, 70126 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5608-7529","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paolo Roberto","family":"Di Palma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Waste and Secondary Raw Materials Technology Laboratory, Circular Economy Division, Sustainability Department, ENEA Casaccia, Via Anguillarese 301, 00123 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-3341-5050","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulio","family":"Gazzola","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Waste and Secondary Raw Materials Technology Laboratory, Circular Economy Division, Sustainability Department, ENEA Casaccia, Via Anguillarese 301, 00123 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2472-1289","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergio","family":"Molinari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Agricultural and Food Sciences, Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, Bari Unit, CNR, 70126 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scienta.2015.09.021","article-title":"Plant biostimulants: Definition, concept, main categories and regulation","volume":"196","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Hortic."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bogd\u00e1nyi, F.T., Pullai, K.B., Doshi, P., Erd\u0151s, E., Gili\u00e1n, L.D., Lajos, K., Leonetti, P., Nagy, P.I., Pantaleo, V., and Petrikovszki, R. (2021). Composted Municipal Green Waste Infused with Biocontrol Agents to Control Plant Parasitic Nematodes\u2014A Review. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9102130"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2020.110209","article-title":"The effects of compost incorporation on soil physical properties in urban soils\u2014A concise review","volume":"261","author":"Kranz","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molinari, S., and Leonetti, P. (2023). Resistance to Plant Parasites in Tomato Is Induced by Soil Enrichment with Specific Bacterial and Fungal Rhizosphere Microbiome. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202309.2095.v1"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molp.2020.09.017","article-title":"The Soil-Borne Identity and Microbiome-Assisted Agriculture: Looking Back to the Future","volume":"13","author":"Bakker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Plant"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wasman.2015.07.034","article-title":"Stability and maturity of biowaste composts derived by small municipalities: Correlation among physical, chemical and biological indices","volume":"44","author":"Hoyos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Waste Manag."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1111\/epp.12050","article-title":"Plant-parasitic nematodes of potential phytosanitary importance, their main hosts and reported yield losses","volume":"43","author":"Singh","year":"2013","journal-title":"EPPO Bull."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-5266(03)00059-1","article-title":"Plant-nematode interactions","volume":"6","author":"Williamson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s00299-010-0972-z","article-title":"Natural genetic and induced plant resistance, as a control strategy to plant-parasitic nematodes alternative to pesticides","volume":"30","author":"Molinari","year":"2011","journal-title":"Plant Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbi.2007.05.004","article-title":"Unravelling mycorrhiza-induced resistance","volume":"10","author":"Pozo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berruti, A., Lumini, E., Balestrini, R., and Bianciotto, V. (2016). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi as natural biofertilizers: Let\u2019s benefit from past successes. Front. Microbiol., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.01559"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molinari, S., and Leonetti, P. (2019). Bio-control agents activate plant immune response and prime susceptible tomato against root-knot nematodes. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0213230"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Molinari, S., Akbarimotlagh, M., and Leonetti, P. (2022). Tomato Root Colonization by Exogenously Inoculated Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Induces Resistance against Root-Knot Nematodes in a Dose-Dependent Manner. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23168920"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/S0960-8524(99)00154-6","article-title":"Roles of organic soil amendments and soil organisms in the biological control of plant-parasitic nematodes: A review","volume":"74","author":"Akhtar","year":"2000","journal-title":"Bioresour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karanastasi, E., Kotsantonis, V., and Pantelides, I.S. (2024). Compost-Derived Bacterial Communities Offer Promise as Biocontrol Agents against Meloidogyne javanica and Promote Plant Growth in Tomato. Agriculture, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202403.0283.v1"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1111\/tpj.12400","article-title":"Pathogenesis-related protein 4b interacts with leucine-rich repeat protein 1 to suppress PR4b-triggered cell death and defense response in pepper","volume":"77","author":"Hwang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Plant J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2749","DOI":"10.1105\/tpc.106.044230","article-title":"An Arabidopsis glutathione peroxidase functions as both a redox transducer and a scavenger in abscisic acid and drought stress responses","volume":"18","author":"Miao","year":"2006","journal-title":"Plant Cell"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giovannini, L., Palla, M., Agnolucci, M., Avio, L., Sbrana, C., Turrini, A., and Giovannetti, M. (2020). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and associated microbiota as plant biostimulants: Research strategies for the selection of the best performing inocula. Agronomy, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy10010106"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agnolucci, M., Avio, L., Pepe, A., Turrini, A., Cristani, C., Bonini, P., Cirino, V., Colosimo, F., Ruzzi, M., and Giovannetti, M. (2019). Bacteria associated with a commercial mycorrhizal inoculum: Community composition and ultifunctional activity as assessed by Illumina sequencing and culture-dependent tools. Front. Plant Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2018.01956"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-09943-4_3","article-title":"Nematode Management Prospects in Composting","volume":"Volume 18","author":"Chaudhary","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sustainable Management of Nematodes in Agriculture Vol.1: Organic Management"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-1987(03)00086-2","article-title":"Suppressing soil-borne diseases with residue management and organic amendments","volume":"72","author":"Bailey","year":"2003","journal-title":"Soil Tillage Res."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ntalli, N., Adamski, Z., Doula, M., and Monokrousos, N. (2020). Nematicidal amendments and soil remediation. Plants, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/plants9040429"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Stirling, G.R. (1991). Mode of action of organics against nematodes. Biological Control of Plant Parasitic Nematodes. Progress, Problems and Prospects, CAB International."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ansari, R., Rizvi, R., and Mahmood, I. (2020). Organic additives and their role in the phytoparasitic nematodes management. Management of Phytonematodes: Recent Advances and Future Challenges, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-4087-5"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2008.03.031","article-title":"Potential of olive mill waste and compost as biobased pesticides against weeds, fungi, and nematodes","volume":"399","author":"Cayuela","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0580-9517(08)70084-9","article-title":"Methods for the study of the population biology of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi","volume":"Volume 24","author":"Norris","year":"1992","journal-title":"Methods in Microbiology: Techniques for the Study of Mycorrhiza"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cafiero, L.M., Canditelli, M., Musmeci, F., Sagnotti, G., and Tuffi, R. (2021). Assessment of disintegration of compostable bioplastic bags by management of electromechanical and static home composters. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su13010263"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2399","DOI":"10.1007\/s12649-021-01637-1","article-title":"Use of bioplastic bags for the collection of organic waste in an electromechanical composter: Effects on the facility management and the compost quality","volume":"13","author":"Canditelli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Waste Biomass Valor."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"158","DOI":"10.1016\/S0007-1536(70)80110-3","article-title":"Improved procedures for clearing roots and staining parasitic and vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi for rapid assessment of infection","volume":"55","author":"Phillips","year":"1970","journal-title":"Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Narwal, S.S., Sampietro, D.A., Catal\u00e1n, C.A.N., Vattuone, M.A., and Politycka, B. (2009). Bioassays on plant-nematode interactions. Plant Bioassays, Studium Press LLC."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1006\/meth.2001.1262","article-title":"Analysis of relative gene expression data using real-time quantitative PCR and the 2\u2212\u2206\u2206Ct method","volume":"25","author":"Livak","year":"2001","journal-title":"Methods"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/21\/10606\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T07:31:28Z","timestamp":1761895888000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/21\/10606"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms262110606"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms262110606","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]}}}