{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T00:44:29Z","timestamp":1769733869219,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":95,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762128000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001275","name":"Coeliac UK","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["INOV01-18"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["INOV01-18"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001275","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001275","name":"Coeliac UK","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001275","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018956","name":"NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIHR203312"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR203312"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018956","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coeliac disease (CeD) is a gastrointestinal enteropathy triggered by the consumption of gluten in predisposed individuals. A recent study showed that individuals were at more than 10% risk of having CeD if a first-degree relative also had the disease. However, only around 50% of CeD genetic heritability is attributable to specific loci, with the majority of this heritable risk attributed to the HLA loci, while the remaining 50% of disease risk is currently unidentified. We investigated the butyrophilin family of immunomodulators as novel CeD risk loci. We sequenced the butyrophilin loci of 48 CeD and 46 control patients and carried out gene-based burden testing on the captured single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). We found a significantly increased BTN2A1 gene burden in CeD patients. To validate these results, the SNP data of 3094 CeD patients and 29,762 control participants from the UK Biobank database were subjected to single-variant analyses. Fourteen BTN2A1, ten BTN3A1, and thirteen BTN3A2 SNPs were significantly associated with CeD status. These results are interesting, as BTN2A1 and BTN3A2 have not been associated with CeD risk previously but are known to modulate the activation of V\u03b39+ \u03b3\u03b4 T cells and NK cells. Twenty of the 37 SNPs above were associated with CeD status independent of the risk-associated HLA genotypes. All twenty of these SNPs, alongside a novel SNP not included in the above SNPs, were associated with CeD in HLA-DQ2.5-matched case-control groups. We reaffirm the association of the BTN3A2 locus with CeD risk and identify BTN2A1 and BTN3A1 as putative novel CeD risk loci.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262110697","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T14:40:48Z","timestamp":1762180848000},"page":"10697","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["BTN2A1 and BTN3A1 as Novel Coeliac Disease Risk Loci: An In Silico Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5670-1832","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kim Ngan","family":"Luu Hoang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3242-6017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shelley","family":"Evans","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6138-3496","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas W.","family":"Willis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical Research Council Biostatistics Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, UK"},{"name":"Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children\u2019s Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98105, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9807-1231","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kate","family":"Davies","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, UK"},{"name":"Division of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4YS, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hannah","family":"Kockelbergh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Data Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZX, UK"},{"name":"The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 2JD, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lee","family":"Silcock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nonacus Ltd., Quinton Business Park, Birmingham B32 1AF, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kim","family":"Piechocki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nonacus Ltd., Quinton Business Park, Birmingham B32 1AF, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Fowler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Data Science, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZX, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4032-7249","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elizabeth J.","family":"Soilleux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-040210-092915","article-title":"Integration of genetic and immunological insights into a model of celiac disease pathogenesis","volume":"29","author":"Abadie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annu. 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