{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,11]],"date-time":"2026-10-11T00:59:24Z","timestamp":1791680364863,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]],"date-time":"2025-11-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763510400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001321","name":"National Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001321","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cancer remains a major global health challenge, with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) representing one of the most aggressive and difficult-to-treat subtypes, characterized by poor prognosis and limited therapeutic options. Current treatments, including chemotherapy, are hindered by high recurrence rates, drug resistance, and severe side effects, highlighting the urgent need for novel therapeutic strategies to address these challenges. Drug repurposing, which involves the application of existing FDA-approved (Food and administration) drugs for new oncological uses, offers a cost-effective and time-efficient alternative to traditional drug development. This review synthesizes recent findings on repurposed drugs, including antidiabetic, antiparasitic, antidepressant, antipsychotic, cardiovascular disease, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and their potential to target TNBC through mechanisms such as immune modulation, interference with signaling pathways, and inhibition of cancer cell proliferation. Evidence suggests that these agents hold therapeutic promise across heterogeneous TNBC subtypes, although outcomes vary depending on the molecular context. Overall, drug repurposing has emerged as a promising avenue for expanding the treatment options for TNBC; however, further research and personalized approaches are essential to translate these findings into effective clinical applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262211196","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T09:44:53Z","timestamp":1763631893000},"page":"11196","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Old Drugs, New Battles: Unleashing Repurposed Drug Classes in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Treatment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Vania S.","family":"Tshimweneka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0031, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thandi V.","family":"Mhlanga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0031, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hijazi, M.A., Gessner, A., and El-Najjar, N. (2023). Repurposing of Chronically Used Drugs in Cancer Therapy: A Chance to Grasp. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15123199"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103684","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2023.103684","article-title":"Repurposing drugs targeting metabolic diseases for cancer therapeutics","volume":"28","author":"Pillai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apsb.2021.09.006","article-title":"Repurposing non-oncology small-molecule drugs to improve cancer therapy: Current situation and future directions","volume":"12","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Pharm. Sin. B"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/20503121211034366","article-title":"New approaches and procedures for cancer treatment: Current perspectives","volume":"9","author":"Debela","year":"2021","journal-title":"SAGE Open Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gendis.2022.12.013","article-title":"Drug repurposing: A novel strategy to target cancer stem cells and therapeutic resistance","volume":"11","author":"Ajmeera","year":"2024","journal-title":"Genes Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rodrigues, R., Duarte, D., and Vale, N. (2022). Drug Repurposing in Cancer Therapy: Influence of Patient\u2019s Genetic Background in Breast Cancer Treatment. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23084280"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01808-1","article-title":"Drug repurposing for cancer therapy","volume":"9","author":"Xia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1186\/s40001-023-01275-4","article-title":"Repurposing approved non-oncology drugs for cancer therapy: A comprehensive review of mechanisms, efficacy, and clinical prospects","volume":"28","author":"Chawla","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcancer.2020.04.006","article-title":"Repurposing of drugs: An attractive pharmacological strategy for cancer therapeutics","volume":"68","author":"Kirtonia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Semin. Cancer Biol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bou Zerdan, M., Ghorayeb, T., Saliba, F., Allam, S., Bou Zerdan, M., Yaghi, M., Bilani, N., Jaafar, R., and Nahleh, Z. (2022). Triple Negative Breast Cancer: Updates on Classification and Treatment in 2021. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14051253"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lukasiewicz, S., Czeczelewski, M., Forma, A., Baj, J., Sitarz, R., and Stanislawek, A. (2021). Breast Cancer-Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Classification, Prognostic Markers, and Current Treatment Strategies-An Updated Review. Cancers, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers13174287"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.3332\/ecancer.2020.1071","article-title":"Repurposing of drugs for triple negative breast cancer: An overview","volume":"14","author":"Spini","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecancermedicalscience"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.9734\/jpri\/2021\/v33i56A33889","article-title":"Therapeutic Targets In Breast Cancer Signaling: A Review","volume":"33","author":"Obeagu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"e51719","article-title":"Ferroptosis and Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: A Systematic Overview of Prognostic Insights and Therapeutic Potential","volume":"16","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1300","DOI":"10.21037\/atm-22-5477","article-title":"Overview of triple negative breast cancer prognostic signatures in the context of data science-driven clinico-genomics research","volume":"10","author":"Capobianco","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ann. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.5306\/wjco.v12.i3.164","article-title":"Overview of recent advances in metastatic triple negative breast cancer","volume":"12","author":"Sendi","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almansour, N.M. (2022). Triple-Negative Breast Cancer: A Brief Review About Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Signaling Pathways, Treatment and Role of Artificial Intelligence. Front. Mol. Biosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmolb.2022.836417"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tierno, D., Grassi, G., Zanconati, F., Bortul, M., and Scaggiante, B. (2023). An Overview of Circulating Cell-Free Nucleic Acids in Diagnosis and Prognosis of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24021799"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-042420-093238","article-title":"Pathogenesis of Triple-Negative Breast Cancer","volume":"17","author":"Derakhshan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1186\/s13058-020-01296-5","article-title":"Triple-negative breast cancer molecular subtyping and treatment progress","volume":"22","author":"Yin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Breast Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1038\/s41416-023-02502-9","article-title":"Unlocking hidden potential: Advancements, approaches, and obstacles in repurposing drugs for cancer therapy","volume":"130","author":"Weth","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s44337-024-00012-y","article-title":"Drug repurposing: A retrospective revolution in breast cancer medicine","volume":"1","author":"Shivani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Discov. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1093\/bmb\/ldaa045","article-title":"Repurposing approved drugs for cancer therapy","volume":"137","author":"Schein","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. Med. Bull."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malik, J.A., Ahmed, S., Jan, B., Bender, O., Al Hagbani, T., Alqarni, A., and Anwar, S. (2022). Drugs repurposed: An advanced step towards the treatment of breast cancer and associated challenges. Biomed. Pharmacother., 145.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2021.112375"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100014","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prmedi.2024.100014","article-title":"Application status of traditional computational methods and machine learning in cancer drug repositioning","volume":"1","author":"Cao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Precis. Medicat."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dalwadi, S.M., Hunt, A., Bonnen, M.D., and Ghebre, Y.T. (2023). Computational approaches for drug repurposing in oncology: Untapped opportunity for high value innovation. Front. Oncol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2023.1198284"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcancer.2019.09.023","article-title":"Computer-aided drug repurposing for cancer therapy: Approaches and opportunities to challenge anticancer targets","volume":"68","author":"Mottini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Semin. Cancer Biol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dhas, Y., Biswas, N., MR, D., Jones, L.D., and Ashili, S. (2024). Repurposing metabolic regulators: Antidiabetic drugs as anticancer agents. Mol. Biomed., 5.","DOI":"10.1186\/s43556-024-00204-z"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.1186\/s12935-021-02202-5","article-title":"Cancer and diabetes: The interlinking metabolic pathways and repurposing actions of antidiabetic drugs","volume":"21","author":"Olatunde","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cancer Cell Int."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garczorz, W., Kosowska, A., and Francuz, T. (2024). Antidiabetic Drugs in Breast Cancer Patients. Cancers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16020299"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u0105browski, M. (2021). Diabetes, Antidiabetic Medications and Cancer Risk in Type 2 Diabetes: Focus on SGLT-2 Inhibitors. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22041680"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corleto, K.A., Strandmo, J.L., and Giles, E.D. (2024). Metformin and Breast Cancer: Current Findings and Future Perspectives from Preclinical and Clinical Studies. Pharmaceuticals, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph17030396"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"129","article-title":"Metformin Targets Glucose Metabolism in Triple Negative Breast Cancer","volume":"4","author":"Edgerton","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Oncol. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anselmino, L.E., Baglioni, M.V., Malizia, F., Laluce, N.C., Etichetti, C.B., Marignac, V.L.M., Rozados, V., Scharovsky, O.G., Girardini, J., and Rico, M.J. (2021). Repositioning metformin and propranolol for colorectal and triple negative breast cancers treatment. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-87525-z"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.4062\/biomolther.2018.042","article-title":"Imidazole Antifungal Drugs Inhibit the Cell Proliferation and Invasion of Human Breast Cancer Cells","volume":"26","author":"Bae","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8080","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.43473","article-title":"Flubendazole elicits anti-cancer effects via targeting EVA1A-modulated autophagy and apoptosis in Triple-negative Breast Cancer","volume":"10","author":"Zhen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C.L., Fang, Z.X., Wu, Z., Hou, Y.Y., Wu, H.T., and Liu, J. (2022). Repurposed itraconazole for use in the treatment of malignancies as a promising therapeutic strategy. Biomed. Pharmacother., 154.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2022.113616"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1007\/s40264-018-0777-5","article-title":"Safety and Tolerability of Sonic Hedgehog Pathway Inhibitors in Cancer","volume":"42","author":"Carpenter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doheny, D., Manore, S., Sirkisoon, S.R., Zhu, D., Aguayo, N.R., Harrison, A., Najjar, M., Anguelov, M., Cox, A.O., and Furdui, C.M. (2022). An FDA-Approved Antifungal, Ketoconazole, and Its Novel Derivative Suppress tGLI1-Mediated Breast Cancer Brain Metastasis by Inhibiting the DNA-Binding Activity of Brain Metastasis-Promoting Transcription Factor tGLI1. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14174256"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, H.T., Li, C.L., Fang, Z.X., Chen, W.J., Lin, W.T., and Liu, J. (2022). Induced Cell Cycle Arrest in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer by Combined Treatment of Itraconazole and Rapamycin. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.873131"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2022.08.018","article-title":"Repurposing antifungal drugs for cancer therapy","volume":"48","author":"Weng","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2747","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S308973","article-title":"Progress in Redirecting Antiparasitic Drugs for Cancer Treatment","volume":"15","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Drug Des. Dev. Ther."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsps.2021.04.004","article-title":"Anthelmintics for drug repurposing: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"29","author":"Alavi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi Pharm. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-024-04654-x","article-title":"Repurposing mebendazole against triple-negative breast cancer CNS metastasis","volume":"168","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Y.-Q., Zheng, Z., Liu, Q.-X., Lu, X., Zhou, D., Zhang, J., Zheng, H., and Dai, J.-G. (2021). Repositioning of Antiparasitic Drugs for Tumor Treatment. Front. Oncol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2021.670804"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2020.105207","article-title":"Ivermectin, a potential anticancer drug derived from an antiparasitic drug","volume":"163","author":"Tang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1703","DOI":"10.1007\/s11030-022-10524-3","article-title":"Design and synthesis of benzimidazole derivatives as apoptosis-inducing agents by targeting Bcl-2 protein","volume":"27","author":"Ilhan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Divers."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malla, R., Viswanathan, S., Makena, S., Kapoor, S., Verma, D., Raju, A.A., Dunna, M., and Muniraj, N. (2024). Revitalizing Cancer Treatment: Exploring the Role of Drug Repurposing. Cancers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16081463"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Persico, M., Abbruzzese, C., Matteoni, S., Matarrese, P., Campana, A.M., Villani, V., Pace, A., and Paggi, M.G. (2022). Tackling the Behavior of Cancer Cells: Molecular Bases for Repurposing Antipsychotic Drugs in the Treatment of Glioblastoma. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11020263"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s43046-022-00137-0","article-title":"Drug repurposing: Re-inventing therapies for cancer without re-entering the development pipeline\u2014A review","volume":"34","author":"Siddiqui","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Egypt. Natl. Cancer Inst."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, L., Fu, Y., Tian, Y., Wang, X., Zhou, X., Ding, R.B., Qi, X., and Bao, J. (2023). Antidepressants as Autophagy Modulators for Cancer Therapy. Molecules, 28.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules28227594"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haddad, N., Gamaethige, S.M., Wehida, N., and Elbediwy, A. (2024). Drug Repurposing: Exploring Potential Anti-Cancer Strategies by Targeting Cancer Signalling Pathways. Biology, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology13060386"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2157","DOI":"10.1002\/2211-5463.12944","article-title":"Vortioxetine induces apoptosis and autophagy of gastric cancer AGS cells via the PI3K\/AKT pathway","volume":"10","author":"Lv","year":"2020","journal-title":"FEBS Open Bio"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1080\/14737140.2022.1987221","article-title":"Repurposing antipsychotic drugs for cancer treatment: Current evidence and future perspectives","volume":"22","author":"Lianos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anticancer. Ther."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Q., Wu, M., Pu, Y., Zhou, J., Zhang, Y., Li, R., Xia, Y., Zhang, Y., and Ma, Y. (2024). Inhibition of TNBC Cell Growth by Paroxetine: Induction of Apoptosis and Blockage of Autophagy Flux. Cancers, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers16050885"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Asensi-Canto, A., Lopez-Abellan, M.D., Castillo-Guardiola, V., Hurtado, A.M., Martinez-Penella, M., Luengo-Gil, G., and Conesa-Zamora, P. (2022). Antitumoral Effects of Tricyclic Antidepressants: Beyond Neuropathic Pain Treatment. Cancers, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers14133248"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kadasah, S.F., Alqahtani, A.M.S., Alkhammash, A., and Radwan, M.O. (2024). Beyond Psychotropic: Potential Repurposing of Fluoxetine toward Cancer Therapy. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202402.0611.v1"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2022.215717","article-title":"The antidepressant imipramine inhibits breast cancer growth by targeting estrogen receptor signaling and DNA repair events","volume":"540","author":"Timilsina","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1007\/s12032-024-02451-0","article-title":"Preliminary study on cytotoxicity of selegiline on different cancer cell lines: Exploration of the induction of ROS-independent apoptosis in breast cancer cells","volume":"41","author":"Kumkar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Racz, B., and Spengler, G. (2023). Repurposing Antidepressants and Phenothiazine Antipsychotics as Efflux Pump Inhibitors in Cancer and Infectious Diseases. Antibiotics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics12010137"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.4149\/neo_2019_190110N34","article-title":"Evidence of beta-blockers drug repurposing for the treatment of triple negative breast cancer: A systematic review","volume":"66","author":"Spini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neoplasma"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gelosa, P., Castiglioni, L., Camera, M., and Sironi, L. (2020). Repurposing of drugs approved for cardiovascular diseases: Opportunity or mirage?. Biochem. Pharmacol., 177.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2020.113895"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40031","DOI":"10.1039\/D4RA07581A","article-title":"Repurposing of Indomethacin and Naproxen as anticancer agents: Progress from 2017 to present","volume":"14","author":"Kassab","year":"2024","journal-title":"RSC Adv."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e7049","DOI":"10.1002\/cam4.7049","article-title":"Cardiovascular\/anti-inflammatory drugs repurposed for treating or preventing cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials","volume":"13","author":"Benjamin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cancer Med."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"3418975","article-title":"Role of Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) in Cancer Prevention and Cancer Promotion","volume":"2019","author":"Wong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Adv. Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zappavigna, S., Cossu, A.M., Grimaldi, A., Bocchetti, M., Ferraro, G.A., Nicoletti, G.F., Filosa, R., and Caraglia, M. (2020). Anti-Inflammatory Drugs as Anticancer Agents. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21072605"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thiruchenthooran, V., S\u00e1nchez-L\u00f3pez, E., and Gliszczy\u0144ska, A. (2023). Perspectives of the Application of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Cancer Therapy: Attempts to Overcome Their Unfavorable Side Effects. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15020475"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lai, H., Liu, Y., Wu, J., Cai, J., Jie, H., Xu, Y., and Deng, S. (2022). Targeting cancer-related inflammation with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: Perspectives in pharmacogenomics. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.1078766"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16380","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.1c01460","article-title":"NSAIDs: Old Acquaintance in the Pipeline for Cancer Treatment and Prevention horizontal line Structural Modulation, Mechanisms of Action, and Bright Future","volume":"64","author":"Ruberte","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, X., Xu, Z., and Li, H. (2018). Author Correction: NSAIDs Use and Reduced Metastasis in Cancer Patients: Results from a meta-analysis. Sci. Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-28806-y"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1159\/000452315","article-title":"The Role of NSAIDs in Breast Cancer Prevention and Relapse: Current Evidence and Future Perspectives","volume":"11","author":"Moris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Breast Care"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2095","DOI":"10.1007\/s00432-022-04187-8","article-title":"Looking at NSAIDs from a historical perspective and their current status in drug repurposing for cancer treatment and prevention","volume":"149","author":"Ozleyen","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e05948","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2021.e05948","article-title":"Drug combination and repurposing for cancer therapy: The example of breast cancer","volume":"7","author":"Correia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heliyon"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/22\/11196\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]],"date-time":"2025-11-21T05:27:00Z","timestamp":1763702820000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/22\/11196"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms262211196"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms262211196","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,19]]}}}