{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T15:43:51Z","timestamp":1789659831400,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763596800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"PAPIIT-DGAPA","award":["IA206724"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IA206724"]}]},{"name":"Direcci\u00f3n General de Asuntos del Personal Acad\u00e9mico (DGAPA), from Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Mexico"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cancer involves uncontrolled cell growth, leading to tumor formation, and remains a major cause of mortality worldwide. Colorectal cancer (CRC) arises from abnormal proliferation of colon glandular epithelial cells. We assessed the cytotoxic and molecular effects of lithium carbonate (Li2CO3) and lithium chloride (LiCl) in two CRC cell lines (HCT-116 and SW-620) and a non-tumorigenic line (CRL-1790). Viability assays revealed dose-dependent cytotoxicity, with HCT-116 being the most sensitive cell line (IC50: 8.14 mM for Li2CO3). Notably, long-term lithium exposure reduced proliferation, lowering colony-forming efficiency (CFE) and a phenotypic shift from holoclones to meroclones and paraclones, indicating diminished self-renewal capacity. Minimal membrane damage was observed (LDH assay), suggesting non-lytic mechanisms consistent with apoptosis. TUNEL and Annexin-V\/IP assays confirmed apoptosis in &gt;40% of cells, without caspase-3 cleavage, suggesting a caspase-independent pathway. PARP-1 cleavage occurred only in SW-620 cells. Western blotting exposed cell-specific modulation of GSK-3\u03b2: increased inactive form (p-Ser9) in CRC cells and decreased in CRL-1790 cells, implying differential disruption of Wnt\/\u03b2-catenin signaling. c-Myc levels remained unchanged, suggesting possible post-translational regulatory effects. Overall, these findings indicate that lithium salts selectively reduce CRC cell viability, impair stem-like characteristics, and induced caspase-independent apoptosis. Therefore, we expand the proof of concept of the potential of lithium-based compounds as low-toxicity adjuvant agents in colorectal cancer therapy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262211222","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T13:25:27Z","timestamp":1763645127000},"page":"11222","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Lithium-Induced Modulation of Proliferation and Apoptosis in an In Vitro Model of Colorectal Cancer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Edgar Yebr\u00e1n","family":"Villegas-V\u00e1zquez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Estudios Superiores Zaragoza, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de Mexico, Ciudad de Mexico 09230, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0060-2503","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ximena 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