{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,19]],"date-time":"2026-10-19T22:44:43Z","timestamp":1792449883539,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]],"date-time":"2025-11-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763769600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of Health","award":["P20GM121299-05-8358"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P20GM121299-05-8358"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bile acids, once considered mere digestive detergents, have emerged as multifaceted signaling molecules with systemic influence extending far beyond the gastrointestinal tract. Recent discoveries reveal their capacity to modulate immune responses, cross the blood\u2013brain barrier, and interact with central nervous system (CNS) cells through their receptors. Neuroinflammation, a key driver of neurodegenerative and neuroimmune disorders, is increasingly linked to bile acid signaling pathways that regulate glial activation, cytokine production, and neuronal survival. This review compiles the current evidence connecting bile acids to CNS inflammation, highlighting mechanistic insights, disease-specific alterations, and the gut\u2013microbiome-bile acid-brain axis. It also explores the therapeutic potential of bile acid derivatives and receptor modulators, as well as their emerging role as biomarkers in conditions such as Alzheimer\u2019s disease, multiple sclerosis, and hepatic encephalopathy. Despite promising advances, critical gaps remain, including the need for bile receptor mapping in human CNS cells, standardized CNS bile acid profiling, and longitudinal metabolomic studies. Bridging these gaps may unlock new strategies for targeting neuroinflammation through bile acid-immune crosstalk.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262311301","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T09:02:07Z","timestamp":1763974927000},"page":"11301","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":31,"title":["Emerging Roles of Bile Acids in Neuroinflammation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-2951-4624","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erika L.","family":"Butcher","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, WV 25755-0001, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Subha","family":"Arthur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Marshall University Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Huntington, WV 25755-0001, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2022.108238","article-title":"Bile acid metabolism and signaling, the microbiota, and metabolic disease","volume":"237","author":"Cai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2040-4603.2013.tb00517.x","article-title":"Bile acid metabolism and signaling","volume":"3","author":"Chiang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1007\/s11427-023-2353-0","article-title":"Bile acid signaling in the regulation of whole body metabolic and immunological homeostasis","volume":"67","author":"Jia","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. China Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Fang, W., Pang, S., Song, G., Wang, Y., and Qi, W. (2025). Total dietary fiber of tartary buckwheat alleviates T2DM through the IRS-1\/PI3K\/AKT pathway and gut microbiota-bile acids-TGR5\/FXR axis in db\/db mice. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 308.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.142145"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, G., Xie, Y., Yi, L., Cheng, W., Jia, H., Shi, W., Liu, Q., Fang, L., Xue, S., and Liu, D. (2025). Bile acids affect intestinal barrier function through FXR and TGR5. Front. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1607899"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, X., Xia, L., Zhou, Y., Xie, J., Tuo, Q., Lin, L., and Liao, D. (2025). Crosstalk Between Bile Acids and Intestinal Epithelium: Multidimensional Roles of Farnesoid X Receptor and Takeda G Protein Receptor 5. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26094240"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Zhou, J., He, Z., Xia, Z., Liu, H., Wu, Y., Chen, S., Wu, B., and Li, H. (2025). Salidroside attenuates NASH through regulating bile acid-FXR\/TGR5 signaling pathway via targeting gut microbiota. Int. J. Biol. Macromol., 307.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2025.142276"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6469","DOI":"10.2147\/DDDT.S530823","article-title":"DHLCA Alleviates Diabetic Kidney Disease via TGR5\/FXR Activation and Gut Microbiota Remodeling","volume":"19","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Drug Des. Dev. Ther."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0383","DOI":"10.1097\/HC9.0000000000000383","article-title":"Microbially conjugated bile salts found in human bile activate the bile salt receptors TGR5 and FXR","volume":"8","author":"Ay","year":"2024","journal-title":"Hepatol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phymed.2023.155329","article-title":"Study on the mechanism of modified Gegen Qinlian decoction in regulating the intestinal flora-bile acid-TGR5 axis for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus based on macro genome sequencing and targeted metabonomics integration","volume":"132","author":"Liu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Phytomedicine"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sundaram, S., Jagadeesan, A., Paulraj, R.S., Sundaram, U., and Arthur, S. (2024). Novel Expression of Apical Bile Acid Transport (ASBT) More Proximally than Distal Ileum Contributing to Enhanced Intestinal Bile Acid Absorption in Obesity. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms252111452"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Zang, J., Yu, Y., Liu, Y., Cao, H., Guo, R., Zhang, L., Liu, M., Zhang, Z., and Li, X. (2024). Lingguizhugan oral solution alleviates MASLD by regulating bile acids metabolism and the gut microbiota through activating FXR\/TGR5 signaling pathways. Front. Pharmacol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2024.1426049"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2023.12.024","article-title":"Ileitis promotes MASLD progression via bile acid modulation and enhanced TGR5 signaling in ileal CD8(+) T cells","volume":"80","author":"Zheng","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"480","article-title":"Bile Acid Injection Regulated Blood Glucose in T2DM Rats via the TGR5\/GLP-1 Rather than FXR\/FGF15 Pathway","volume":"30","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Altern. Ther. Health Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ackerman, H.D., and Gerhard, G.S. (2016). Bile Acids in Neurodegenerative Disorders. Front. Aging Neurosci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2016.00263"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mertens, K.L., Kalsbeek, A., Soeters, M.R., and Eggink, H.M. (2017). Bile Acid Signaling Pathways from the Enterohepatic Circulation to the Central Nervous System. Front. Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00617"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.steroids.2017.07.001","article-title":"Unconjugated bile acids in rat brain: Analytical method based on LC\/ESI-MS\/MS with chemical derivatization and estimation of their origin by comparison to serum levels","volume":"125","author":"Higashi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Steroids"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.livres.2021.07.002","article-title":"Bile acid receptors and signaling crosstalk in the liver, gut and brain","volume":"5","author":"Ferrell","year":"2021","journal-title":"Liver Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, S., Shao, Q., Chen, J., Lv, X., Ji, J., Liu, Y., and Song, Y. (2023). Bile acid signalling and its role in anxiety disorders. Front. Endocrinol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2023.1268865"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xing, C., Huang, X., Wang, D., Yu, D., Hou, S., Cui, H., and Song, L. (2023). Roles of bile acids signaling in neuromodulation under physiological and pathological conditions. Cell Biosci., 13, Correction in Cell Biosci. 2023, 13, 125.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13578-023-01076-6"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grant, S.M., and DeMorrow, S. (2020). Bile Acid Signaling in Neurodegenerative and Neurological Disorders. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21175982"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2018.07.217","article-title":"Altered bile acid profile associates with cognitive impairment in Alzheimer\u2019s disease\u2014An emerging role for gut microbiome","volume":"15","author":"MahmoudianDehkordi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2100324","DOI":"10.1002\/pmic.202100324","article-title":"The clinical and mechanistic roles of bile acids in depression, Alzheimer\u2019s disease, and stroke","volume":"22","author":"Wu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1186\/s40035-022-00307-z","article-title":"Tauroursodeoxycholic acid: A potential therapeutic tool in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"11","author":"Khalaf","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transl. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2306576","DOI":"10.1002\/advs.202306576","article-title":"Serum Bile Acids Improve Prediction of Alzheimer\u2019s Progression in a Sex-Dependent Manner","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ye, W., Bai, X., Zhao, Y., Du, Z., Liu, F., Wang, Y.-D., and Chen, W.-D. (2025). Farnesoid X receptor activation alleviates hepatic encephalopathy by improving hepatic ammonia metabolism in murine models. Biochim. Biophys. Acta (BBA)\u2014Mol. Basis Dis., 1871.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2025.167750"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101340","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v17.i3.101340","article-title":"Dysregulation of bile acid signal transduction causes neurological dysfunction in cirrhosis rats","volume":"17","author":"Ren","year":"2025","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1493","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.29450","article-title":"A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Ursodeoxycholic Acid (UDCA) in Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"38","author":"Payne","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He, X., Lai, Y., Mo, C., Zhang, Y., Ai, P., Xu, S., Qian, Y., Xiao, Q., and Yang, X. (2024). Association between Fecal Bile Acids and Levodopa Response in Patients with Parkinson\u2019s Disease. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12071432"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-024-01811-6","article-title":"Bile acid metabolism and signaling in health and disease: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets","volume":"9","author":"Fleishman","year":"2024","journal-title":"Signal Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G55","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00476.2020","article-title":"Dynamics of the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids in healthy humans","volume":"321","author":"Stellaard","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G619","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00308.2020","article-title":"Metabolic consequences of ileal interruption of the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids","volume":"319","author":"Verkade","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101094","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plipres.2021.101094","article-title":"Bile acids and their receptors in metabolic disorders","volume":"82","author":"Fiorucci","year":"2021","journal-title":"Prog. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2023.122304","article-title":"Review on chronic metabolic diseases surrounding bile acids and gut microbiota: What we have explored so far","volume":"336","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2172671","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2023.2172671","article-title":"Bile acids as modulators of gut microbiota composition and function","volume":"15","author":"Larabi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guzior, D.V., and Quinn, R.A. (2021). Review: Microbial transformations of human bile acids. Microbiome, 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40168-021-01101-1"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apha.2015.04.003","article-title":"Bile Acid Metabolism and Signaling in Cholestasis, Inflammation, and Cancer","volume":"74","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2021-326789","article-title":"Gut microbiome and health: Mechanistic insights","volume":"71","author":"Tilg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0044-1779520","article-title":"UDCA for Drug-Induced Liver Disease: Clinical and Pathophysiological Basis","volume":"44","author":"Bessone","year":"2024","journal-title":"Semin. Liver Dis."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2024.11.003","article-title":"Biological functions and pharmacological behaviors of bile acids in metabolic diseases","volume":"75","author":"Zhuang","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bao, H., Li, H., Jia, Y., Xiao, Y., Luo, S., Zhang, D., Han, L., Dai, L., Xiao, C., and Feng, L. (2021). Ganoderic acid A exerted antidepressant-like action through FXR modulated NLRP3 inflammasome and synaptic activity. Biochem. Pharmacol., 188.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2021.114561"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-020-01838-w","article-title":"Farnesoid X receptor knockout protects brain against ischemic injury through reducing neuronal apoptosis in mice","volume":"17","author":"Shan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflam."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1524890113","article-title":"Obeticholic acid, a synthetic bile acid agonist of the farnesoid X receptor, attenuates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"113","author":"Ho","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2231","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.25742","article-title":"TUDCA: An Agonist of the Bile Acid Receptor GPBAR1\/TGR5 With Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Microglial Cells","volume":"232","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-021-00398-4","article-title":"Central anorexigenic actions of bile acids are mediated by TGR5","volume":"3","author":"Perino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2020.113504","article-title":"INT-777 prevents cognitive impairment by activating Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5) and attenuating neuroinflammation via cAMP\/ PKA\/ CREB signaling axis in a rat model of sepsis","volume":"335","author":"Jin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.09.016","article-title":"INT-777 attenuates NLRP3-ASC inflammasome-mediated neuroinflammation via TGR5\/cAMP\/PKA signaling pathway after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats","volume":"91","author":"Hu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2023.11.021","article-title":"Gut microbiota-mediated ursodeoxycholic acids regulate the inflammation of microglia through TGR5 signaling after MCAO","volume":"115","author":"Zhang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romero-Ram\u00edrez, L., and Mey, J. (2024). Emerging Roles of Bile Acids and TGR5 in the Central Nervous System: Molecular Functions and Therapeutic Implications. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25179279"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, N., Bai, Y., Han, X., Yuan, J., Wang, L., He, Y., Yang, L., Wu, H., Shi, H., and Wu, X. (2023). Taurochenodeoxycholic acid reduces astrocytic neuroinflammation and alleviates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice. Immunobiology, 228.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2023.152388"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.13243","article-title":"TGR5 signaling reduces neuroinflammation during hepatic encephalopathy","volume":"135","author":"McMillin","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000003460","article-title":"Activation of TGR5 in the injured nerve site according to a prevention protocol mitigates partial sciatic nerve ligation-induced neuropathic pain by alleviating neuroinflammation","volume":"166","author":"Shi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McMillin, M., Frampton, G., Grant, S., Khan, S., Diocares, J., Petrescu, A., Wyatt, A., Kain, J., Jefferson, B., and DeMorrow, S. (2017). Bile Acid-Mediated Sphingosine-1-Phosphate Receptor 2 Signaling Promotes Neuroinflammation During Hepatic Encephalopathy in Mice. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2017.00191"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.3346\/jkms.2012.27.2.200","article-title":"Oral solubilized ursodeoxycholic acid therapy in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A randomized cross-over trial","volume":"27","author":"Min","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Korean Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1097\/WNF.0b013e3181c47569","article-title":"Safety, tolerability, and cerebrospinal fluid penetration of ursodeoxycholic Acid in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis","volume":"33","author":"Parry","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2019.03.065","article-title":"Protective effects of tauroursodeoxycholic acid on lipopolysaccharide-induced cognitive impairment and neurotoxicity in mice","volume":"72","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeo, X.Y., Tan, L.Y., Chae, W.R., Lee, D.-Y., Lee, Y.-A., Wuestefeld, T., and Jung, S. (2023). Liver\u2019s influence on the brain through the action of bile acids. Front. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1123967"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loera-Valencia, R., Vazquez-Juarez, E., Mu\u00f1oz, A., Gerenu, G., G\u00f3mez-Gal\u00e1n, M., Lindskog, M., DeFelipe, J., Cedazo-Minguez, A., and Merino-Serrais, P. (2021). High levels of 27-hydroxycholesterol results in synaptic plasticity alterations in the hippocampus. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-83008-3"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2022.108311","article-title":"Bile acids and neurological disease","volume":"240","author":"Hurley","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"864","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-014-8731-8","article-title":"Glycoursodeoxycholic acid reduces matrix metalloproteinase-9 and caspase-9 activation in a cellular model of superoxide dismutase-1 neurodegeneration","volume":"51","author":"Vaz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3467","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI129401","article-title":"Bile acid metabolism is altered in multiple sclerosis and supplementation ameliorates neuroinflammation","volume":"130","author":"Bhargava","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shtilbans, A., Reintsch, W.E., Piscopo, V.E.C., Krahn, A.I., and Durcan, T.M. (2024). Combination of tauroursodeoxycholic acid, co-enzyme Q10 and creatine demonstrates additive neuroprotective effects in in-vitro models of Parkinson\u2019s disease. Front. Neurosci., 18.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2024.1492028"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, W., Zhang, K., Guo, J., and Xu, L. (2025). Bile acid-mediated gut-liver axis crosstalk: The role of nuclear receptor signaling in dynamic regulation of inflammatory networks. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1595486"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejmech.2023.115143","article-title":"The discovery of 12\u03b2-methyl-17-epi-18-nor-bile acids as potent and selective TGR5 agonists","volume":"250","author":"Luxenburger","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"tkaf011","DOI":"10.1093\/burnst\/tkaf011","article-title":"The role of brain\u2013liver\u2013gut Axis in neurological disorders","volume":"13","author":"Pan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Burn. Trauma"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2020.100138","article-title":"Metabolic Network Analysis Reveals Altered Bile Acid Synthesis and Metabolism in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"1","author":"Baloni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eado1855","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.ado1855","article-title":"TGR5 deficiency in excitatory neurons ameliorates Alzheimer\u2019s pathology by regulating APP processing","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, S., Liu, L., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Z., Li, H., Fan, F., He, J., Kang, J., and Zuo, L. (2023). Integrated untargeted and targeted metabolomics to reveal therapeutic effect and mechanism of Alpiniae oxyphyllae fructus on Alzheimer\u2019s disease in APP\/PS1 mice. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.1104954"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-021-00425-8","article-title":"Comprehensive metabolic profiling of Parkinson\u2019s disease by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry","volume":"16","author":"Shao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medj.2024.09.011","article-title":"Bile acid metabolites predict multiple sclerosis progression and supplementation is safe in progressive disease","volume":"6","author":"Ladakis","year":"2025","journal-title":"Med"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-022-00548-6","article-title":"Microbial-derived metabolites as a risk factor of age-related cognitive decline and dementia","volume":"17","author":"Connell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dodge, J.C., Yu, J., Sardi, S.P., and Shihabuddin, L.S. (2021). Sterol auto-oxidation adversely affects human motor neuron viability and is a neuropathological feature of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-80378-y"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiang, P.I., Chang, K.H., Tang, H.Y., Wu, Y.R., Cheng, M.L., and Chen, C.M. (2024). Diagnostic Potential of Alternations of Bile Acid Profiles in the Plasma of Patients with Huntington\u2019s Disease. Metabolites, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo14070394"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1496","DOI":"10.1002\/med.21653","article-title":"Expert insights: The potential role of the gut microbiome-bile acid-brain axis in the development and progression of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and hepatic encephalopathy","volume":"40","author":"Jia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Med. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s12017-020-08625-z","article-title":"Bile Acids: A Communication Channel in the Gut-Brain Axis","volume":"23","author":"Singaraja","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuromolecular Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70608","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.70608","article-title":"Gut Microbiota-Bile Acid-Brain Axis and TGR5-ERK1\/2 Signaling Mediate ADT-Induced Cognitive Impairment","volume":"31","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2024.107361","article-title":"Gut microbiota-brain bile acid axis orchestrates aging-related neuroinflammation and behavior impairment in mice","volume":"208","author":"Ma","year":"2024","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-024-02729-3","article-title":"Bile acid profile associated with CSF and PET biomarkers in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"36","author":"Nabizadeh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nie, K., Li, Y., Zhang, J., Gao, Y., Qiu, Y., Gan, R., Zhang, Y., and Wang, L. (2022). Distinct Bile Acid Signature in Parkinson\u2019s Disease With Mild Cognitive Impairment. Front. Neurol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.897867"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-021-02248-2","article-title":"Tauroursodeoxycholic acid alleviates secondary injury in spinal cord injury mice by reducing oxidative stress, apoptosis, and inflammatory response","volume":"18","author":"Hou","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflammation"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2020.111116","article-title":"The bile acid TUDCA improves glucose metabolism in streptozotocin-induced Alzheimer\u2019s disease mice model","volume":"521","author":"Zangerolamo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135493","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2020.135493","article-title":"Ursodeoxycholic acid protects dopaminergic neurons from oxidative stress via regulating mitochondrial function, autophagy, and apoptosis in MPTP\/MPP(+)-induced Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"741","author":"Qi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100348","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbih.2021.100348","article-title":"Ursodeoxycholic acid as a potential alternative therapeutic approach for neurodegenerative disorders: Effects on cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammation in the brain","volume":"18","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun. Health"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1517\/13543784.10.7.1243","article-title":"The therapeutic effects of ursodeoxycholic acid as an anti-apoptotic agent","volume":"10","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2001","journal-title":"Expert. Opin. Investig. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2021.09.021","article-title":"From dried bear bile to molecular investigation: A systematic review of the effect of bile acids on cell apoptosis, oxidative stress and inflammation in the brain, across pre-clinical models of neurological, neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders","volume":"99","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1097\/WNF.0000000000000528","article-title":"Protective Effects of Ursodeoxycholic Acid Against Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation Through Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases Pathway in MPTP-Induced Parkinson Disease","volume":"45","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2018.08.012","article-title":"Altered Bile Acid Profile in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: Relationship to Neuroimaging and CSF Biomarkers","volume":"15","author":"Nho","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, P., Killinger, B.A., Ensink, E., Beddows, I., Yilmaz, A., Lubben, N., Lamp, J., Schilthuis, M., Vega, I.E., and Woltjer, R. (2021). Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis Is Associated with Elevated Bile Acids in Parkinson\u2019s Disease. Metabolites, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo11010029"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erngren, I., Vaivade, A., Carlsson, H., Al-Grety, A., \u00c5kerfeldt, T., Kockum, I., Hedstr\u00f6m, A.K., Alfredsson, L., Olsson, T., and Burman, J. (2025). Bile acid metabolism in multiple sclerosis is perturbed and associated with the risk of confirmed disability worsening. BMC Med., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-025-04041-x"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8009","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-016-0281-9","article-title":"Reduced Plasma Levels of 25-Hydroxycholesterol and Increased Cerebrospinal Fluid Levels of Bile Acid Precursors in Multiple Sclerosis Patients","volume":"54","author":"Crick","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2025.177941","article-title":"Ursodeoxycholic acid alleviates multiple sclerosis via TGR5-dependent microglial regulation in mice","volume":"1003","author":"Sonoda","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lewis, N.D., Patnaude, L.A., Pelletier, J., Souza, D.J., Lukas, S.M., King, F.J., Hill, J.D., Stefanopoulos, D.E., Ryan, K., and Desai, S. (2014). A GPBAR1 (TGR5) small molecule agonist shows specific inhibitory effects on myeloid cell activation in vitro and reduces experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) in vivo. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0100883"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaur, G., and Rattan, S.I.S. (2024). Gut Microbiota-Brain Axis in Healthy Ageing. Brain and Mental Health in Ageing, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-68513-2"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.12664","article-title":"Tauroursodeoxycholic acid in the treatment of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis","volume":"23","author":"Elia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymthe.2018.10.010","article-title":"A Stem Cell-Based Screening Platform Identifies Compounds that Desensitize Motor Neurons to Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress","volume":"27","author":"Thams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1002\/lipd.12390","article-title":"Alteration of serum bile acids in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis","volume":"59","author":"Lee","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lipids"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1186\/s13063-023-07638-w","article-title":"A randomized double-blind clinical trial on safety and efficacy of tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) as add-on treatment in patients affected by amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS): The statistical analysis plan of TUDCA-ALS trial","volume":"24","author":"Lombardo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Trials"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, H., Liu, Y., Li, Z., Liang, N., Zhou, X., Nie, X., Zhang, T., and Qi, W. (2019). Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Primary Biliary Cirrhosis Overlap Syndrome: Two Cases Report. Front. Neurol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.00890"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2009.02.003","article-title":"CAG expansion in the Huntington disease gene is associated with a specific and targetable predisposing haplogroup","volume":"84","author":"Warby","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Hum. Genet."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1006\/exnr.2001.7755","article-title":"A Bile Acid Protects against Motor and Cognitive Deficits and Reduces Striatal Degeneration in the 3-Nitropropionic Acid Model of Huntington\u2019s Disease","volume":"171","author":"Keene","year":"2001","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10671","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.162362299","article-title":"Tauroursodeoxycholic acid, a bile acid, is neuroprotective in a transgenic animal model of Huntington\u2019s disease","volume":"99","author":"Keene","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2007.12.001","article-title":"Bile acids and apoptosis modulation: An emerging role in experimental Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"14","author":"Ramalho","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-025-01542-9","article-title":"The effects of ursodeoxycholic acid on Parkinson\u2019s disease, a mechanistic review of the recent evidence","volume":"40","author":"Razavi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Metab. Brain Dis."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.7453\/gahmj.2014.017","article-title":"The Unexpected Uses of Urso- and Tauroursodeoxycholic Acid in the Treatment of Non-liver Diseases","volume":"3","author":"Vang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Adv. Health Med."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.1080\/1028415X.2020.1859729","article-title":"Tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) is neuroprotective in a chronic mouse model of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"25","author":"Cuevas","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2017.06.004","article-title":"Novel insights into the antioxidant role of tauroursodeoxycholic acid in experimental models of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"1863","author":"Rosa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kiriyama, Y., and Nochi, H. (2019). The Biosynthesis, Signaling, and Neurological Functions of Bile Acids. Biomolecules, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom9060232"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, Z., Yang, S., Tang, C., Li, D., Kan, Y., and Yao, L. (2025). New insights into microbial bile salt hydrolases: From physiological roles to potential applications. Front. Microbiol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2025.1513541"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-024-03218-0","article-title":"Comprehensive analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid and serum metabolome in neurological diseases","volume":"21","author":"Otto","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflam."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106855","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imlet.2024.106855","article-title":"Endoplasmic reticulum stress response in immune cells contributes to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis pathogenesis in rats","volume":"267","author":"Vidicevic","year":"2024","journal-title":"Immunol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albanese, A., Ludolph, A.C., McDermott, C.J., Corcia, P., Van Damme, P., Van den Berg, L.H., Hardiman, O., Rinaldi, G., Vanacore, N., and Dickie, B. (2022). Tauroursodeoxycholic acid in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: The TUDCA-ALS trial protocol. Front. Neurol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.1009113"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"954","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02975850","article-title":"Potential role of ursodeoxycholic acid in suppression of nuclear factor kappa B in microglial cell line (BV-2)","volume":"27","author":"Joo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"610","article-title":"Review: The bile acids urso- and tauroursodeoxycholic acid as neuroprotective therapies in retinal disease","volume":"25","author":"Daruich","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Vis."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.R900011-JLR200","article-title":"Bile acids: Regulation of apoptosis by ursodeoxycholic acid","volume":"50","author":"Amaral","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Lipid Res."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3942","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmb.2018.08.019","article-title":"Ursodeoxycholic Acid Improves Mitochondrial Function and Redistributes Drp1 in Fibroblasts from Patients with Either Sporadic or Familial Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"430","author":"Bell","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fathima, A., and Jamma, T. (2024). UDCA ameliorates inflammation driven EMT by inducing TGR5 dependent SOCS1 expression in mouse macrophages. Sci. Rep., 14, Correction in Sci. Rep. 2024, 14, 29359.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-80577-x"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2024.113087","article-title":"NR1H4 ameliorates Parkinson\u2019s disease via inhibiting astrocyte activation and neuroinflammation in a CEBP\u03b2\/NF-\u03baB dependent manner","volume":"142","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-021-02087-1","article-title":"TGR5 activation attenuates neuroinflammation via Pellino3 inhibition of caspase-8\/NLRP3 after middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats","volume":"18","author":"Liang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflam."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2022.02.028","article-title":"TGR5 Agonist INT-777 Alleviates Inflammatory Neurodegeneration in Parkinson\u2019s Disease Mouse Model by Modulating Mitochondrial Dynamics in Microglia","volume":"490","author":"Huang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_120","first-page":"405","article-title":"Capitalizing on Hope: Questionable Marketing Approval and Pricing of a New ALS Drug","volume":"54","author":"Flynn","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Determ. Health Health Serv."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1177\/10600280231172802","article-title":"Sodium Phenylbutyrate and Taurursodiol: A New Therapeutic Option for the Treatment of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis","volume":"58","author":"Alqallaf","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jena, P.K., Setayesh, T., Sheng, L., Di Lucente, J., Jin, L.W., and Wan, Y.Y. (2022). Intestinal Microbiota Remodeling Protects Mice from Western Diet-Induced Brain Inflammation and Cognitive Decline. Cells, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells11030504"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-021-03303-3","article-title":"Ganoderic Acid A Attenuates LPS-Induced Neuroinflammation in BV2 Microglia by Activating Farnesoid X Receptor","volume":"46","author":"Jia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Solanki, R., Karande, A., and Ranganathan, P. (2023). Emerging role of gut microbiota dysbiosis in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. Front. Neurol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1149618"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101982","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2025.101982","article-title":"The gut microbiota-immune-brain axis: Therapeutic implications","volume":"6","author":"Moloney","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cell Rep. Med."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delbridge, A.R.D., Huh, D., Brickelmaier, M., Burns, J.C., Roberts, C., Challa, R., Raymond, N., Cullen, P., Carlile, T.M., and Ennis, K.A. (2020). Organotypic Brain Slice Culture Microglia Exhibit Molecular Similarity to Acutely-Isolated Adult Microglia and Provide a Platform to Study Neuroinflammation. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2020.592005"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Musto, M., Rauti, R., Rodrigues, A.F., Bonechi, E., Ballerini, C., Kostarelos, K., and Ballerini, L. (2019). 3D Organotypic Spinal Cultures: Exploring Neuron and Neuroglia Responses Upon Prolonged Exposure to Graphene Oxide. Front. Syst. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2019.00001"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, E.J., Suh, M., Choi, H., Choi, Y., Hwang, D.W., Bae, S., and Lee, D.S. (2024). Spatial transcriptomic brain imaging reveals the effects of immunomodulation therapy on specific regional brain cells in a mouse dementia model. BMC Genom., 25.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-024-10434-8"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2014.10.031","article-title":"Unbiased Approaches to Biomarker Discovery in Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"84","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romanazzi, T., Zanella, D., Bhatt, M., Di Iacovo, A., Galli, A., and Bossi, E. (2023). Bile acid interactions with neurotransmitter transporters. Front. Cell. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2023.1161930"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/23\/11301\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,24]],"date-time":"2025-11-24T09:06:54Z","timestamp":1763975214000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/26\/23\/11301"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]]},"references-count":130,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms262311301"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms262311301","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,22]]}}}