{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T10:39:16Z","timestamp":1764239956285,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764201600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Russian Ministry of Science and High Education","award":["FSFZ-2023-0004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FSFZ-2023-0004"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aging is characterized by immune decline, mainly due to thymic involution\u2014the age-related shrinkage of the thymus gland. This leads to reduced T-cell production, chronic inflammation, and increased susceptibility to age-related diseases. Thymosin alpha-1 (T\u03b11), a peptide hormone produced by the thymus, exhibits potent immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. It helps restore immune function by stimulating T-cell differentiation, enhancing thymic output, and modulating dendritic cell and macrophage activity. Preclinical and clinical studies show that T\u03b11 can improve vaccine response in the elderly and mitigate immunosenescence. The hybrid drug Refnot (a fusion of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF\u03b1) and T\u03b11) combines T\u03b11\u2019s immunomodulation with TNF\u2019s antitumor activity but has reduced toxicity. It represents a promising therapeutic approach to counteract age-related immune dysfunction and inflammation, potentially by slowing the aging process. Further research is needed to validate its long-term efficacy and safety in geriatrics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms262311470","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]],"date-time":"2025-11-27T10:25:16Z","timestamp":1764239116000},"page":"11470","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Aging and Thymosin Alpha-1"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"26","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6920-5384","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria A.","family":"Simonova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IBCh RAS), Ul.Miklukho-Maklaya 16\/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0543-2067","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Igor","family":"Ivanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lomonosov Institute of Fine Chemical Technologies, MIREA\u2014Russian Technological University, Vernadskogo pr. 86, 119571 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Natalia S.","family":"Shoshina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Synthetic Biotechnology, Sechenov University, 119991 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alina M.","family":"Komyakova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Synthetic Biotechnology, Sechenov University, 119991 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dmitry A.","family":"Makarov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Synthetic Biotechnology, Sechenov University, 119991 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6154-9959","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Denis S.","family":"Baranovskii","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regenerative Medicine, National Medical Research Radiological Centre of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Koroleva St., 249036 Obninsk, Russia"},{"name":"Institute for Systems Biology and Medicine, Russian University of Medicine, Delegatskaya Str. 20\/1, 127473 Moscow, Russia"},{"name":"University Hospital Basel, Basel University, 4001 Basel, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2888-7999","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ilya D.","family":"Klabukov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regenerative Medicine, National Medical Research Radiological Centre of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Koroleva St., 249036 Obninsk, Russia"},{"name":"Obninsk Institute for Nuclear Power Engineering, National Research Nuclear University MEPhI, 249020 Obninsk, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kristina P.","family":"Telepenina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Synthetic Biotechnology, Sechenov University, 119991 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8347-4556","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dmitrii A.","family":"Atiakshin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scientific and Educational Resource Center for Innovative Technologies of Immunophenotyping, Digital Spatial Profiling and Ultrastructural Analysis, Patrice Lumumba Peoples\u2019 Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 117198 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter V.","family":"Shegay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regenerative Medicine, National Medical Research Radiological Centre of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Koroleva St., 249036 Obninsk, Russia"},{"name":"Scientific and Educational Resource Center for Innovative Technologies of Immunophenotyping, Digital Spatial Profiling and Ultrastructural Analysis, Patrice Lumumba Peoples\u2019 Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 117198 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Andrey D.","family":"Kaprin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Regenerative Medicine, National Medical Research Radiological Centre of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Koroleva St., 249036 Obninsk, Russia"},{"name":"Scientific and Educational Resource Center for Innovative Technologies of Immunophenotyping, Digital Spatial Profiling and Ultrastructural Analysis, Patrice Lumumba Peoples\u2019 Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 117198 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vasiliy N.","family":"Stepanenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Synthetic Biotechnology, Sechenov University, 119991 Moscow, Russia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1556\/030.63.2016.2.1","article-title":"The Immunoendocrine Thymus as a Pacemaker of Lifespan","volume":"63","author":"Csaba","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Microbiol. 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